Why This Matters
Consumer behavior theories are the backbone of advertising strategy—they explain why people buy what they buy and how marketers can ethically influence those decisions. You're being tested on your ability to connect psychological principles to real advertising applications, whether that's understanding why someone clicks "add to cart" at 2 AM or why a luxury brand emphasizes exclusivity over price. These theories span motivation and needs, cognitive processing, social influence, and decision-making models, and exam questions will expect you to apply them to campaign scenarios, not just define them.
Don't just memorize theory names and their creators—know what problem each theory solves for advertisers. Can you explain why a fear-based PSA might backfire? Why post-purchase emails matter? Why influencer marketing works for some products but not others? The theories below give you frameworks for answering these questions. Master the underlying mechanisms, and you'll be ready for any FRQ that asks you to recommend or critique an advertising strategy.
Motivation and Needs-Based Theories
These theories explain what drives consumers to act in the first place. Before any ad can persuade, it must tap into an existing need or create awareness of one. Understanding the hierarchy and classification of human needs helps advertisers position products as solutions.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- Five-tier pyramid structure—physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization needs must be addressed in order
- Lower needs must be satisfied first before consumers become motivated by higher-level appeals; a hungry person won't respond to self-actualization messaging
- Advertising application involves matching product positioning to the appropriate need level (insurance = safety; luxury goods = esteem)
Motivation-Need Theory
- Classifies needs into categories that directly influence purchasing decisions and brand preferences
- Identifies underlying motivations beyond surface-level wants; consumers buy drills because they need holes, not drills
- Target market identification becomes more precise when advertisers understand which specific needs drive their audience
Expectancy-Value Theory
- Behavior depends on two factors—the expected outcome of an action and the value placed on that outcome
- Consumers weigh benefits against costs before committing; high perceived value + high likelihood of success = purchase
- Advertising implication means ads must communicate both that the product works AND that the benefit matters to the consumer
Compare: Maslow's Hierarchy vs. Motivation-Need Theory—both categorize human needs, but Maslow emphasizes sequential fulfillment while Motivation-Need Theory focuses on classification for targeting. Use Maslow when explaining why timing matters in advertising; use Motivation-Need when discussing audience segmentation.
Attitude and Intention Models
These theories focus on how attitudes form and predict behavior. They're essential for understanding why someone might love a brand but never buy from it—and what advertisers can do about that gap. Attitudes alone don't guarantee action; intentions and perceived control matter too.
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
- Behavioral intentions drive behavior—intentions are shaped by personal attitudes and subjective norms (what others think)
- Social pressure plays a major role in decision-making; consumers consider how purchases will be perceived by peers
- Predictive power makes TRA useful for forecasting whether positive brand attitudes will translate to actual purchases
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
- Extends TRA by adding perceived behavioral control—whether consumers believe they can perform the behavior
- Self-efficacy matters for purchases requiring skill, effort, or resources; someone may want a gym membership but doubt they'll use it
- Non-volitional behaviors become explainable; useful for understanding why consumers don't always act on their intentions
Compare: TRA vs. TPB—TRA assumes behavior is fully voluntary, while TPB accounts for perceived control. If an FRQ asks why a well-liked product has low sales, TPB gives you the "perceived barriers" angle that TRA misses.
Cognitive Processing and Persuasion
These theories explain how consumers process advertising messages and what determines whether persuasion sticks. The depth of processing affects both attitude change and its durability over time.
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
- Two routes to persuasion—central route (high involvement, argument-focused) and peripheral route (low involvement, cue-focused)
- Route determines durability of attitude change; central processing creates stronger, longer-lasting attitudes
- Advertising strategy selection depends on product involvement level; use data and logic for cars, celebrity endorsements for gum
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
- Discomfort arises from inconsistency between beliefs and behaviors; buying an expensive item while valuing frugality creates tension
- Consumers seek resolution by changing attitudes, rationalizing decisions, or seeking confirming information
- Post-purchase behavior is heavily influenced; explains why buyers read reviews after purchasing to validate their choice
Howard-Sheth Model
- Maps cognitive processes involved in consumer decisions, including inputs (stimuli), perceptual processes, and outputs (behavior)
- Information processing is central—how consumers filter, interpret, and respond to marketing messages
- Complexity acknowledged through multiple variables; useful for understanding why the same ad affects different consumers differently
Compare: ELM vs. Cognitive Dissonance—ELM explains how attitudes form during persuasion, while Cognitive Dissonance explains attitude adjustment after behavior. ELM is your go-to for ad design questions; Cognitive Dissonance is essential for post-purchase strategy questions.
Decision-Making Process Models
These comprehensive models map the stages consumers move through when making purchases. They're frameworks for understanding where advertising can intervene most effectively. Each stage presents different opportunities and challenges for marketers.
Engel-Kollat-Blackwell (EKB) Model
- Five-stage process—problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase, and post-purchase behavior
- Internal and external influences shape each stage; memory, culture, and marketing all play roles
- Stage-specific marketing becomes possible; different tactics work for problem recognition vs. evaluation phases
Consumer Decision Model (CDM)
- Similar staged approach to EKB—need recognition through post-purchase evaluation
- Emphasizes marketing intervention points at each stage; awareness ads for early stages, comparison content for evaluation
- Post-purchase evaluation included as critical; dissatisfaction here affects repeat purchases and word-of-mouth
Nicosia Model
- Interaction-focused framework—consumer decisions emerge from ongoing exchanges between consumer and marketing environment
- Feedback loop emphasized between consumer attitudes and marketing strategies; advertising shapes attitudes, which shape responses to future ads
- Communication flow is central; useful for understanding how brand messaging evolves based on consumer response
Compare: EKB Model vs. Nicosia Model—both map decision processes, but EKB emphasizes linear stages while Nicosia emphasizes interactive feedback loops. EKB works better for one-time purchases; Nicosia is more useful for ongoing brand relationships.
Social and Observational Influence
These theories explain how other people—directly or through media—shape consumer behavior. Advertising doesn't happen in a vacuum; social context determines how messages land. Consumers learn from and are influenced by the behaviors they observe in others.
Social Learning Theory
- Observation and imitation are primary learning mechanisms; consumers model behaviors they see rewarded
- Media and advertising serve as models—viewers learn brand preferences and consumption habits from characters and influencers
- Brand loyalty formation often occurs through observed behavior rather than direct experience; children adopt parents' brand preferences
Diffusion of Innovation Theory
- Explains adoption patterns for new products across five categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards
- Communication channels matter—mass media creates awareness, but interpersonal channels drive adoption decisions
- Social system influence determines adoption speed; tight-knit communities spread innovations faster through word-of-mouth
Compare: Social Learning Theory vs. Diffusion of Innovation—Social Learning explains individual behavior modeling, while Diffusion explains market-wide adoption patterns. Use Social Learning for influencer marketing questions; use Diffusion for new product launch strategy questions.
Risk, Emotion, and Impulse
These theories address non-rational elements of consumer behavior—how emotions, risk perception, and spontaneous urges drive purchases that logic alone can't explain. Not all consumer decisions follow deliberate evaluation processes.
Prospect Theory
- Decisions based on perceived gains and losses—not objective outcomes but subjective framing
- Loss aversion is key—losses feel roughly twice as painful as equivalent gains feel good; "don't miss out" beats "you could gain"
- Risk behavior varies by framing; consumers are risk-seeking to avoid losses but risk-averse when protecting gains
Hawkins Stern Impulse Buying Theory
- Four types of impulse buying—pure impulse, reminder impulse, suggestion impulse, and planned impulse
- Emotional and situational factors trigger spontaneous purchases; store layout, mood, and time pressure all matter
- Retail environment design directly applies this theory; end caps, checkout displays, and limited-time offers exploit impulse mechanisms
Compare: Prospect Theory vs. Hawkins Stern—Prospect Theory explains how framing affects deliberate decisions, while Hawkins Stern explains spontaneous, low-deliberation purchases. Prospect Theory applies to high-stakes messaging; Hawkins Stern applies to point-of-sale strategy.
Quick Reference Table
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| Needs and Motivation | Maslow's Hierarchy, Motivation-Need Theory, Expectancy-Value Theory |
| Attitude-Behavior Link | Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory of Planned Behavior |
| Message Processing | Elaboration Likelihood Model, Howard-Sheth Model |
| Post-Purchase Psychology | Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
| Decision Stages | EKB Model, Consumer Decision Model, Nicosia Model |
| Social Influence | Social Learning Theory, Diffusion of Innovation |
| Emotional/Impulse Buying | Prospect Theory, Hawkins Stern Impulse Buying Theory |
Self-Check Questions
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Which two theories both address the attitude-behavior gap, and what factor does TPB add that TRA lacks?
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A luxury car brand wants to create advertising that produces lasting attitude change. According to ELM, which route should they target, and why does product category matter here?
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Compare how Cognitive Dissonance Theory and the EKB Model each explain post-purchase behavior. How might a marketer use both theories together?
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If an FRQ asks you to explain why a well-reviewed product with strong brand awareness still has low sales, which theory provides the best framework for your answer?
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A grocery store wants to increase unplanned purchases. Identify which theory applies most directly, and explain two specific tactics the theory would support.