💏Intro to Chemistry Unit 7 – Chemical Bonds and Molecular Structure

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Chemical bonds form when atoms share or transfer electrons to achieve a stable electronic configuration
• Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms
  • Nonpolar covalent bonds have an equal sharing of electrons (H₂, Cl₂)
  • Polar covalent bonds have an unequal sharing of electrons due to electronegativity differences (HCl, H₂O)
• Ionic bonds involve the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another, forming ions with opposite charges (NaCl, MgCl₂)
• Electronegativity measures an atom's ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond
• Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom and participate in bonding
• Lewis structures represent the arrangement of atoms and electrons in a molecule or polyatomic ion
• VSEPR theory predicts the geometry of molecules based on the number of electron domains around the central atom

Types of Chemical Bonds

• Covalent bonds form between nonmetals and involve the sharing of electrons
  • Single bonds involve the sharing of one pair of electrons (H₂, F₂)
  • Double bonds involve the sharing of two pairs of electrons (O₂, CO₂)
  • Triple bonds involve the sharing of three pairs of electrons (N₂, C₂H₂)
• Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals, involving the transfer of electrons and the formation of ions
• Metallic bonds form between metal atoms, characterized by a sea of delocalized electrons
• Coordinate covalent bonds (dative bonds) involve one atom providing both electrons in the shared pair (NH₄⁺, H₃O⁺)
• Hydrogen bonds are a type of intermolecular force that occurs between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (N, O, or F) and another electronegative atom

Molecular Geometry and Shapes

• VSEPR theory predicts molecular geometry based on the number of electron domains (bonding and lone pairs) around the central atom
• Electron domains arrange themselves to minimize repulsion and maximize distance from each other
• Linear geometry occurs when there are two electron domains around the central atom (CO₂, BeH₂)
  • Bond angles are 180°
• Trigonal planar geometry occurs when there are three electron domains around the central atom (BF₃, SO₃)
  • Bond angles are 120°
• Tetrahedral geometry occurs when there are four electron domains around the central atom (CH₄, NH₄⁺)
  • Bond angles are 109.5°
• Trigonal bipyramidal geometry occurs when there are five electron domains around the central atom (PCl₅, SF₄)
• Octahedral geometry occurs when there are six electron domains around the central atom (SF₆, [Co(NH₃)₆]³⁺)

Intermolecular Forces

• Intermolecular forces are attractions between molecules that determine physical properties like boiling point and solubility
• Dipole-dipole forces occur between polar molecules, where the positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of another
• London dispersion forces (induced dipole forces) occur between nonpolar molecules due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution
  • Strength increases with increasing molecular mass and surface area
• Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of dipole-dipole force that occurs between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (N, O, or F) and another electronegative atom
• Ion-dipole forces occur between an ion and a polar molecule (Na⁺ and H₂O)
• Van der Waals forces is a collective term for dipole-dipole, London dispersion, and hydrogen bonding forces

Bond Properties and Characteristics

• Bond length is the average distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms
  • Decreases with increasing bond order (single > double > triple)
  • Increases with increasing atomic size
• Bond energy is the energy required to break a chemical bond
  • Increases with increasing bond order (single < double < triple)
  • Decreases with increasing atomic size
• Bond polarity depends on the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms
  • Nonpolar covalent bonds have an electronegativity difference of 0 to 0.4 (C-H, C-C)
  • Polar covalent bonds have an electronegativity difference of 0.4 to 1.7 (H-O, C-N)
  • Ionic bonds have an electronegativity difference greater than 1.7 (Na-Cl, Mg-O)
• Resonance occurs when a molecule or ion can be represented by multiple Lewis structures, resulting in a hybrid structure with delocalized electrons (O₃, CO₃²⁻)

Practical Applications and Examples

• Understanding chemical bonding is essential for predicting the properties and reactivity of compounds
• Hydrogen bonding in water explains its high boiling point, surface tension, and ability to dissolve polar substances
• Ionic compounds like NaCl have high melting points and conduct electricity when dissolved in water or molten
• Covalent compounds like hydrocarbons (C₈H₁₈) have low melting points and are often insoluble in water
• Resonance in benzene (C₆H₆) contributes to its stability and unique properties
• Molecular geometry influences the polarity and reactivity of molecules (CH₄ is nonpolar, while NH₃ is polar)
• Intermolecular forces determine the physical properties of substances, such as the boiling points of noble gases (He < Ne < Ar < Kr < Xe)

Common Misconceptions

• Confusing covalent and ionic bonding
  • Covalent bonds involve sharing electrons, while ionic bonds involve transferring electrons
• Assuming that all covalent bonds are nonpolar
  • Polar covalent bonds exist due to electronegativity differences between atoms
• Misinterpreting Lewis structures
  • Failing to recognize resonance structures or formal charges
• Misapplying VSEPR theory
  • Neglecting the effect of lone pairs on molecular geometry (NH₃ is trigonal pyramidal, not trigonal planar)
• Overestimating the strength of hydrogen bonds
  • While stronger than other dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen bonds are still much weaker than covalent or ionic bonds
• Confusing intermolecular forces with intramolecular forces (chemical bonds)
  • Intermolecular forces act between molecules, while chemical bonds hold atoms together within molecules

Study Tips and Tricks

• Practice drawing Lewis structures and predicting molecular geometries using VSEPR theory
• Use mnemonics to remember key concepts, such as "LONely GUYs" for London dispersion forces (London, Only, Nonpolar, Gases, Usually, Yes)
• Create flashcards for important terms and definitions
• Use visualization tools like molecular modeling kits or online simulations to better understand 3D structures
• Work through practice problems and past exam questions to identify areas for improvement
• Teach the concepts to a classmate or study partner to reinforce your understanding
• Relate the concepts to real-world examples and applications to make them more memorable
• Create a study schedule and break down the material into manageable chunks to avoid overwhelming yourself