🥇International Economics Unit 1 – International Economics: An Introduction

Key Concepts and Terminology

• International economics studies economic interactions between countries, including trade, investment, and monetary policies
• Comparative advantage refers to a country's ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country
• Absolute advantage occurs when a country can produce a good or service more efficiently than any other country
• Terms of trade represent the ratio of export prices to import prices for a country
• Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or generate revenue
• Quotas limit the quantity or value of goods that can be imported or exported during a specific period
• Embargoes prohibit trade with a specific country or region for economic or political reasons
• Foreign direct investment (FDI) involves a company investing in a foreign country to establish operations or acquire assets

Historical Context of International Economics

• The Silk Road, an ancient network of trade routes, facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas between Asia and Europe
• The Age of Exploration (15th-17th centuries) led to the establishment of colonial empires and the expansion of global trade
• The Industrial Revolution (late 18th-19th centuries) increased productivity and international trade through technological advancements
• The Great Depression (1929-1939) led to a decline in global trade and the adoption of protectionist policies
• The Bretton Woods Conference (1944) established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to promote global economic stability
• The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947 to reduce trade barriers and promote international trade
  • GATT was succeeded by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995
• The post-World War II era saw the rise of globalization and increased economic integration between countries

Theories of International Trade

• Mercantilism, a dominant economic theory in the 16th-18th centuries, emphasized the importance of a positive balance of trade and the accumulation of gold and silver
• Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage (1776) argued that countries should specialize in producing goods they can make more efficiently than others
• David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage (1817) suggested that countries should specialize in producing goods with the lowest opportunity cost
• The Heckscher-Ohlin model (1933) posits that countries export goods that use their abundant factors of production intensively
• The Product Life Cycle theory (1966) explains how the location of production changes as a product moves through its life cycle
• The New Trade Theory (1970s) emphasizes the role of economies of scale, product differentiation, and imperfect competition in international trade
• The Gravity Model of Trade predicts bilateral trade flows based on the economic sizes and distance between countries

Global Economic Institutions

• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) promotes global financial stability and provides loans to countries facing balance of payments difficulties
• The World Bank Group offers loans and technical assistance to developing countries for projects that promote economic growth and poverty reduction
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) oversees global trade rules and resolves trade disputes between member countries
• Regional trade agreements (RTAs) such as the European Union (EU), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) promote trade and economic integration within specific regions
• The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) provides a forum for countries to discuss and coordinate economic policies
• The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) promotes the integration of developing countries into the global economy
• The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) serves as a bank for central banks and fosters international monetary and financial cooperation

Exchange Rates and Currency Markets

• Exchange rates determine the value of one currency in terms of another
• Floating exchange rates are determined by market forces of supply and demand
• Fixed exchange rates are set and maintained by a country's central bank
• Managed float exchange rates involve central bank intervention to influence the value of a currency
• Appreciation occurs when a currency increases in value relative to another currency
• Depreciation occurs when a currency decreases in value relative to another currency
• The foreign exchange market is the largest financial market in the world, with trillions of dollars traded daily
• Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) theory suggests that exchange rates should adjust to equalize the prices of goods and services across countries

Balance of Payments

• The balance of payments records a country's transactions with the rest of the world over a specific period
• The current account includes trade in goods and services, income, and unilateral transfers
  • A current account surplus occurs when a country's exports exceed its imports
  • A current account deficit occurs when a country's imports exceed its exports
• The capital account records transactions involving the purchase or sale of non-financial assets (e.g., land, property)
• The financial account tracks transactions involving financial assets (e.g., stocks, bonds, FDI)
• The official reserves account records changes in a country's holdings of foreign exchange reserves
• Balance of payments equilibrium occurs when the sum of the current, capital, and financial accounts equals zero
• Persistent current account deficits can lead to increased foreign debt and potential economic instability

International Trade Policies

• Free trade policies aim to remove barriers to international trade, such as tariffs and quotas
• Protectionist policies seek to shield domestic industries from foreign competition through trade barriers
• Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is a development strategy that emphasizes the production of domestic substitutes for imported goods
• Export-oriented industrialization (EOI) focuses on producing goods for export to drive economic growth
• Voluntary export restraints (VERs) are agreements between countries to limit the quantity of exports to avoid trade disputes
• Dumping occurs when a company exports a product at a price lower than its domestic price or production cost
• Countervailing duties are tariffs imposed on imported goods to offset the effects of foreign subsidies
• Trade liberalization involves the removal or reduction of trade barriers to promote international trade

Current Challenges in the Global Economy

• Global imbalances, such as large current account deficits or surpluses, can lead to economic instability and trade tensions
• The rise of protectionism, particularly in the form of trade wars, threatens to disrupt global trade and economic growth
• Climate change and environmental degradation pose risks to sustainable economic development and require international cooperation
• Income inequality within and between countries can lead to social and political instability
• The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted global supply chains, reduced international trade, and highlighted the need for resilient economic systems
• The rapid pace of technological change, including automation and digitalization, is transforming the nature of work and international trade
• Geopolitical tensions and conflicts can disrupt trade routes and create uncertainty in the global economy
• The increasing role of emerging markets and developing economies in the global economy presents both opportunities and challenges for international trade and investment