📄Contracts Unit 14 – Uniform Commercial Code – Article 2 (Sales)

What's This All About?

• Uniform Commercial Code Article 2 (UCC Article 2) governs the sale of goods in the United States
• Provides a comprehensive set of rules and guidelines for transactions involving the sale of tangible, movable property (goods)
• Aims to promote uniformity and predictability in commercial transactions across different states
• Balances the interests of buyers and sellers by establishing default rules and allowing for flexibility in contract formation and performance
• Covers various aspects of sales contracts, including formation, terms, performance, breach, and remedies
• Applies to both domestic and international sales of goods, unless the parties agree otherwise or the transaction is governed by another law (CISG)
• Serves as a model law that states can adopt or modify to suit their specific needs and preferences

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Goods: Tangible, movable property that is the subject of a sales contract (automobiles, appliances, clothing)
  • Does not include real estate, services, or intangible assets (patents, copyrights)
• Merchant: A person or entity who regularly deals in the type of goods being sold or holds themselves out as having special knowledge or skill regarding the goods
  • Merchants are held to a higher standard of conduct and may have additional obligations under UCC Article 2
• Good faith: Honesty in fact and the observance of reasonable commercial standards of fair dealing
  • Parties to a sales contract are expected to act in good faith throughout the transaction
• Warranty: A promise or guarantee made by the seller regarding the quality, condition, or performance of the goods
  • Express warranties: Explicit statements or promises made by the seller about the goods (advertising, product descriptions)
  • Implied warranties: Unspoken promises that arise by operation of law (merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose)
• Acceptance: The buyer's indication that the goods conform to the contract and that they will keep them
  • Acceptance can be express or implied through the buyer's actions (using or reselling the goods)
• Rejection: The buyer's refusal to accept the goods because they do not conform to the contract
  • Buyers must notify the seller of rejection within a reasonable time after delivery

Scope and Applicability

• UCC Article 2 applies to transactions in goods, which are defined as tangible, movable property
• Does not cover sales of real estate, services, or intangible assets (software licenses, intellectual property rights)
• Applies to both commercial and consumer sales, although some provisions may offer additional protections for consumers
• Governs domestic sales within the United States, as well as international sales unless the parties agree otherwise or the transaction is subject to the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG)
• Parties can vary the provisions of UCC Article 2 by agreement, except for certain non-waivable obligations (good faith, reasonableness)
• In mixed contracts involving both goods and services, courts apply the "predominant purpose" test to determine whether UCC Article 2 applies
  • If the primary purpose of the contract is the sale of goods, with services being incidental, UCC Article 2 will govern the entire transaction
• Some states have adopted variations of UCC Article 2 or have enacted additional consumer protection laws that may supplement or supersede its provisions

Formation of Sales Contracts

• Sales contracts can be formed in any manner sufficient to show agreement, including conduct by both parties recognizing the existence of a contract
• Offer and acceptance: A contract is formed when an offer to buy or sell goods is accepted by the other party
  • Offers can be made orally, in writing, or through electronic means (email, online platforms)
  • Acceptance can be express or implied through actions (shipping the goods, making payment)
• Consideration: A sales contract requires an exchange of value, typically the buyer's promise to pay the purchase price in exchange for the seller's promise to deliver the goods
• Statute of Frauds: Contracts for the sale of goods priced at $500 or more must be evidenced by a writing signed by the party against whom enforcement is sought
  • Exceptions: Specially manufactured goods, admission in court, partial performance
• Modification: Parties can modify the terms of a sales contract by agreement, even if the original contract prohibits oral modifications
  • Good faith modifications do not require additional consideration
• Firm offers: Merchants can make irrevocable offers to buy or sell goods that remain open for a stated time period or, if no time is stated, for a reasonable time (not to exceed three months)

Terms and Conditions

• UCC Article 2 provides default rules for various terms and conditions of sales contracts, which the parties can modify by agreement
• Price: If the parties do not agree on a price, the court may imply a reasonable price based on market value or the parties' course of dealing
  • Open price terms allow the price to be determined at a later date based on agreed-upon factors (market price, cost plus formula)
• Quantity: Contracts must specify a definite quantity of goods or provide a method for determining the quantity
  • Output and requirements contracts allow the quantity to be based on the seller's production capacity or the buyer's needs
• Delivery: Unless otherwise agreed, the seller must make the goods available to the buyer at the seller's place of business or, if none, at the seller's residence
  • Shipment contracts: Seller must ship the goods to the buyer and bear the risk of loss until delivery to the carrier
  • Destination contracts: Seller bears the risk of loss until the goods are tendered to the buyer at the agreed-upon destination
• Payment: Unless otherwise agreed, payment is due at the time and place the buyer receives the goods
  • Credit terms may be expressly stated or implied based on the parties' course of dealing or usage of trade
• Warranties: Sellers can make express warranties through affirmations, promises, or descriptions of the goods that become part of the basis of the bargain
  • Implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose arise by operation of law unless disclaimed by the seller

Performance and Breach

• Sellers must tender delivery of the goods in accordance with the contract terms, and buyers must accept and pay for conforming goods
• Perfect tender rule: Buyers may reject goods that fail to conform to the contract in any respect, even if the non-conformity is minor
  • Exceptions: Installment contracts, cure by seller, acceptance by buyer
• Cure: Sellers have the right to cure non-conforming tender within the time for performance if they reasonably notify the buyer
  • Buyers must allow sellers a reasonable opportunity to cure before rejecting the goods
• Acceptance: Buyers are deemed to have accepted the goods if they fail to reject them within a reasonable time after delivery, or if they act inconsistently with the seller's ownership (using or reselling the goods)
  • After acceptance, buyers can only revoke acceptance for substantial non-conformities that were difficult to discover or based on the seller's assurances
• Anticipatory repudiation: If either party indicates that they will not perform their obligations under the contract, the other party may treat this as a breach and seek remedies
  • The non-breaching party can either await performance or resort to any remedy for breach, and may in either case suspend their own performance
• Impossibility and impracticability: Parties may be excused from performance if unforeseen circumstances make performance impossible or commercially impracticable
  • The event must be beyond the party's control and not due to their fault or negligence

Remedies for Buyers and Sellers

• UCC Article 2 provides a range of remedies for buyers and sellers in the event of a breach of contract
• Buyer's remedies:
  • Reject non-conforming goods and recover any portion of the purchase price paid
  • Accept non-conforming goods and recover damages for breach of warranty
  • Cover by purchasing substitute goods and recover the difference in price
  • Specific performance, requiring the seller to deliver the goods as promised (rarely granted)
• Seller's remedies:
  • Cancel the contract and resell the goods, recovering the difference between the resale price and the contract price
  • Recover the purchase price from the buyer if the goods have been accepted or cannot be resold
  • Recover incidental damages (storage, transportation) and consequential damages (lost profits) caused by the buyer's breach
• Liquidated damages: Parties can agree in advance to a reasonable estimate of damages in case of breach, as long as the amount is not deemed a penalty
• Limitation of remedies: Parties can agree to limit or exclude certain remedies, such as consequential damages, unless the limitation is unconscionable or fails of its essential purpose
• Statute of limitations: Claims for breach of a sales contract must be brought within four years from the date of the breach, unless the parties agree to a shorter period (not less than one year)

Special Cases and Exceptions

• UCC Article 2 recognizes several special cases and exceptions to its general rules, accommodating the unique characteristics of certain types of sales contracts
• Installment contracts: Contracts requiring the delivery of goods in separate lots are treated as a single contract, and a breach as to one installment may not necessarily constitute a breach of the entire contract
  • Buyers can only reject a non-conforming installment if the non-conformity substantially impairs the value of that installment and cannot be cured
• Sale on approval: Buyers are allowed to return goods that do not meet their approval within a reasonable time, and the sale is not complete until the buyer accepts the goods
  • Risk of loss remains with the seller until acceptance, and the buyer's failure to return the goods within a reasonable time constitutes acceptance
• Consignment sales: Goods are delivered to a consignee for sale, with the consignor retaining title until the goods are sold to a third party
  • Consignors must give notice to the consignee's creditors of their interest in the goods to protect their rights
• Auctions: Sales by auction are governed by special rules, such as the requirement that bids be accepted by the auctioneer and that the sale be "without reserve" unless otherwise indicated
  • Sellers cannot bid on their own goods unless this right is expressly reserved or the auction is announced as a sale with reserve
• Bulk transfers: Sales of a major part of a seller's inventory outside the ordinary course of business are subject to additional notice requirements to protect the seller's creditors
  • Buyers must ensure that the seller has complied with these requirements to avoid potential liability to the seller's creditors