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Table of Contents
Unit 8 Overview: The Postwar Period & Cold War (1945-1980)
8.1 Context: U.S. as a Global Leader
8.2 The Cold War from 1945 to 1980
8.3 The Red Scare
8.4 Economy after 1945
8.5 Culture after 1945
8.6 Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement (1940s and 1950s)
8.7 America as a World Power
8.8 The Vietnam War
8.9 The Great Society
8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement (1960s)
8.11 The Expansion of the Civil Rights Movement
8.12 Youth Culture of the 1960s
8.13 The Environment and Natural Resources
8.14 Society in Transition
8.15 Continuity and Change in Period 8

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8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement (1960s)

Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Citation:

The 1960s marked a pivotal decade in the African American Civil Rights Movement, when activists employed diverse strategies to challenge racial discrimination. Building on earlier victories of the 1940s and 1950s, civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. led campaigns of direct action, nonviolent protest, and legal challenges that transformed American society and secured landmark legislation guaranteeing basic civil rights.

The civil rights movement gained unprecedented momentum in the early 1960s as activists developed new tactics to confront segregation directly, often facing violent resistance but capturing national attention.

Image Courtesy of Don Cravens / The Life Images Collection

Martin Luther King Jr. and Nonviolent Protest

Martin Luther King Jr. emerged as the most influential civil rights leader of the era, advocating nonviolent resistance based on Christian principles. His philosophy combined moral appeal with direct action to challenge segregation:

  • Believed in using "soul force" rather than physical force to combat injustice
  • Advocated peaceful protest to expose and challenge unjust laws
  • Sought to appeal to the conscience of white Americans through disciplined nonviolence
  • Aimed to create a "beloved community" united through Christian love

King's strategic approach to challenging segregation emphasized both moral persuasion and practical pressure, making segregation both ethically indefensible and economically unsustainable.

The Birmingham Campaign

In 1963, King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) launched a massive protest in Birmingham, Alabama, one of the South's most segregated cities:

  • King was arrested and wrote his famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail"
  • In the letter, he explained the four steps of nonviolent campaigns: fact gathering, negotiation, self-purification, and direct action
  • Explained why African Americans could no longer wait for gradual change
  • Expressed disappointment with white moderates who preferred "order" over justice

The campaign escalated when children joined the protests:

  • The "Children's Crusade" involved 6,000 young demonstrators
  • Police Commissioner Bull Connor ordered attacks using police dogs, clubs, and high-pressure water hoses
  • Television cameras captured the brutal response, shocking the nation
  • The Kennedy administration intervened to arrange a settlement ending segregation in stores, restaurants, and public facilities
Nonviolent Protest StrategyPurposeExample
Economic boycottsApply economic pressureMontgomery bus boycott
Sit-insChallenge segregated facilitiesGreensboro lunch counter
Freedom RidesTest compliance with integration lawsInterstate bus travel
Mass demonstrationsShow public support and create media attentionBirmingham protests
Jail-insOverwhelm local jails and highlight injusticeFill the Jails campaign
The Birmingham campaign demonstrated the power of media coverage in the civil rights struggle, as images of police brutality against peaceful protesters generated widespread sympathy for the movement.

March on Washington

Image Courtesy of Khan Academy

Civil rights leaders organized the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August 1963:

  • Over 200,000 demonstrators gathered at the Lincoln Memorial
  • Featured speeches from civil rights leaders and performances by musicians
  • Emphasized both economic and civil rights for African Americans
  • Culminated in King's "I Have a Dream" speech, which articulated a vision of racial harmony
  • The march built momentum for civil rights legislation

The March on Washington represented the largest civil rights demonstration in American history to that point and helped unify diverse elements of the movement behind a common agenda.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

Following President Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson pushed Congress to pass comprehensive civil rights legislation:

  • Made racial discrimination illegal in public accommodations (hotels, restaurants, theaters)
  • Prohibited discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin
  • Created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
  • Authorized the Justice Department to file school desegregation lawsuits
  • Allowed for withholding federal funds from programs practicing discrimination

The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Act in Heart of Atlanta Motel v. U.S., ruling that Congress could regulate businesses engaged in interstate commerce.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 represented the most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction and marked a decisive federal commitment to ending legal segregation.

Voting Rights Campaigns

Despite the Civil Rights Act, African Americans in many Southern states still faced obstacles to voting:

  • Poll taxes (eliminated by the 24th Amendment in 1964)
  • Literacy tests administered unfairly
  • Economic intimidation and violence against potential voters

King chose Selma, Alabama as the focus for voting rights activism:

  • In Selma, Black residents constituted 50% of the population but only 1% of registered voters
  • Organized a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama's capital
  • On "Bloody Sunday" (March 7, 1965), state troopers violently attacked marchers at the Edmund Pettus Bridge
  • Television coverage of the brutality generated national outrage
  • President Johnson federalized the Alabama National Guard to protect demonstrators
  • The protest led directly to the Voting Rights Act of 1965

The Selma campaign highlighted the violent resistance to Black voting rights and created the political pressure necessary for federal intervention.

The Voting Rights Act of 1965

Image Courtesy of National Park Service

This landmark legislation transformed political participation for African Americans:

  • Banned literacy tests in states and counties with low voter participation
  • Dispatched federal registrars to ensure African Americans could register to vote
  • Required federal approval for changes to voting laws in areas with histories of discrimination
  • Resulted in dramatic increases in Black voter registration across the South
  • By the end of the decade, the percentage of eligible African Americans registered to vote rose from 40% to 65%

The Voting Rights Act fundamentally altered the political landscape of the South, enabling African Americans to exercise political power and eventually elect Black officials at all levels of government.

Alternative Approaches: Black Nationalism and Black Power

Not all civil rights activists agreed with King's nonviolent approach and integration goals:

  • The Nation of Islam, led by Elijah Muhammad, advocated Black nationalism and separatism
  • Malcolm X initially promoted self-defense and criticized King's nonviolent approach
  • Before his assassination in 1965, Malcolm X moderated some of his views after leaving the Nation of Islam
  • (n 1966, Stokely Carmichael introduced the slogan "Black Power," emphasizing racial pride and self-determination
  • The Black Panther Party combined revolutionary socialism with community self-help programs
  • Black Panthers advocated armed self-defense, community control of institutions, and economic justice

As the civil rights movement evolved, debates intensified over strategy, goals, and the pace of change, reflecting growing impatience with the slow progress of integration.

King's Assassination and Aftermath

On April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee:

  • King had come to Memphis to support striking sanitation workers
  • His death triggered riots in 168 cities across the country
  • At least 46 people died in the violence
  • The assassination and riots intensified a growing "white backlash" against the civil rights movement
  • Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968 (Fair Housing Act), prohibiting discrimination in housing
Image Courtesy of The New York Times

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s fundamentally transformed American society by dismantling legal segregation and securing voting rights for African Americans. While significant progress was made through nonviolent protest and federal legislation, the movement's goals of economic equality and social justice remained unfinished as the decade came to a close, setting the stage for continuing struggles in the years ahead.

Key Terms to Review (17)

24th Amendment: The 24th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1964, prohibits the use of poll taxes in federal elections. This amendment was a crucial milestone in the fight against voter suppression, particularly aimed at eliminating financial barriers that were used to disenfranchise African American voters and poor individuals, reflecting the broader goals of the civil rights movement during the 1960s.
Assassination of MLK: The assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. occurred on April 4, 1968, when the civil rights leader was shot and killed in Memphis, Tennessee. His death marked a significant turning point in the African American Civil Rights Movement, igniting widespread riots and protests across the nation and leading to increased calls for social justice and equality. King's assassination had profound effects on both the movement he championed and the broader society, deepening divisions while also fostering new alliances among various civil rights groups.
Black Panthers: The Black Panthers, officially known as the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, was a revolutionary organization founded in 1966 aimed at combating systemic racism and advocating for the rights of African Americans. They were known for their militant stance against police brutality and social injustices, promoting self-defense and community programs in urban areas. The Panthers became a symbol of the broader struggle for civil rights and influenced many aspects of the African American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.
Black Power: Black Power is a political and social movement that emerged in the 1960s, advocating for the empowerment and self-determination of African Americans. It emphasized pride in Black culture, economic independence, and the need for a more radical approach to achieving civil rights, often contrasting with the nonviolent methods championed by earlier leaders. This movement was not just about civil rights but also about fostering a sense of identity and community among African Americans.
Brown v. Board of Education: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson. This case became a cornerstone of the African American Civil Rights Movement, igniting efforts to end segregation and discrimination across various domains of American life, influencing the social and political landscape in the 1960s and beyond.
Children’s Crusade: The Children’s Crusade was a pivotal event in 1963 during the African American Civil Rights Movement, where thousands of African American children and teenagers marched in Birmingham, Alabama, to protest segregation and demand equal rights. This event highlighted the bravery and determination of young activists who faced violent opposition, capturing national attention and galvanizing support for the civil rights cause. The Children's Crusade exemplified the crucial role that youth played in the broader movement for social justice and equality.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was landmark legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This act was a significant achievement of the civil rights movement, reflecting a broader struggle for equality and justice during a time of social upheaval and change.
Edmund Pettus Bridge: The Edmund Pettus Bridge is a historic bridge in Selma, Alabama, that became a symbol of the struggle for voting rights during the civil rights movement in the 1960s. It was the site of the infamous 'Bloody Sunday' on March 7, 1965, when peaceful protesters marching for voting rights were violently confronted by law enforcement, highlighting the brutal realities of racial discrimination and galvanizing national support for the civil rights movement.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC): The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency established by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to enforce laws against workplace discrimination. It plays a crucial role in addressing civil rights violations by investigating claims of discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The EEOC's creation was a significant advancement in the fight for equality during the Civil Rights Movement, as it provided a formal mechanism for individuals to seek justice against discriminatory practices in employment.
Heart of Atlanta Motel v US: Heart of Atlanta Motel v US was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1964 that upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964, specifically Title II, which prohibits racial discrimination in public accommodations. This case emphasized the federal government's power to regulate interstate commerce and affirmed that businesses serving the public could not discriminate based on race, significantly impacting the civil rights movement and the fight for equality.
"I Have a Dream" speech: The 'I Have a Dream' speech is a historic address delivered by Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963. In this powerful speech, King envisioned a future where racial equality and justice would prevail, articulating the aspirations of the African American Civil Rights Movement while calling for an end to racism and discrimination.
Letter from Birmingham Jail: The 'Letter from Birmingham Jail' is an open letter written by Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1963, while he was imprisoned for participating in nonviolent protests against racial segregation in Birmingham, Alabama. In this powerful document, King articulates the moral imperative of civil disobedience and the urgency of the civil rights movement, addressing criticisms of his actions and calling for immediate action against racial injustice.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was a prominent African American leader and activist during the civil rights movement, known for his advocacy for black empowerment, self-determination, and his criticism of the mainstream civil rights approach. He played a significant role in raising awareness about racial inequality and the struggles faced by African Americans, advocating for a more militant stance compared to other leaders of the time.
March on Washington: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, held on August 28, 1963, was a historic demonstration advocating for civil and economic rights for African Americans. This event brought together over 250,000 participants, making it one of the largest rallies for human rights in United States history, and is famously known for Martin Luther King Jr.'s 'I Have a Dream' speech. It was a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement that showcased the demands for equality and justice, influencing legislation and public opinion.
Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent leader in the American civil rights movement, advocating for nonviolent resistance to combat racial injustice and discrimination. His commitment to equality and justice was demonstrated through significant events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington, where he delivered his famous 'I Have a Dream' speech, galvanizing public support for civil rights reforms.
Selma to Montgomery Marches: The Selma to Montgomery Marches were a series of three protest marches held in 1965, aimed at securing voting rights for African Americans in the South. These marches were organized in response to systemic racial discrimination that prevented Black citizens from exercising their right to vote, and they highlighted the struggle for civil rights during a pivotal moment in the movement. The marches ultimately led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to eliminate barriers to voting for African Americans.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is landmark legislation that aimed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting practices, particularly in the southern states. This act was a crucial step in the broader African American Civil Rights Movement, reinforcing the fight for equality and ensuring that all citizens could exercise their right to vote without barriers. Its passage marked a significant change in federal policy, showcasing the government's commitment to upholding civil rights and addressing systemic injustices faced by African Americans.
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8.11 The Expansion of the Civil Rights Movement