5.1 The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement that emphasized reason, empiricism, and individual rights over tradition and religious authority. Thinkers like John Locke (natural rights, government by consent), Montesquieu (separation of powers), Rousseau (social contract), Voltaire (religious tolerance), Adam Smith (free markets), and Mary Wollstonecraft (women’s rights) challenged old hierarchies and promoted ideas—social contract, deism, salons, coffeehouses—that spread across the Atlantic. It matters because Enlightenment ideas provided the ideological context for revolutions (American, French, Latin American) and later reform movements: they questioned monarchy and privilege, supported nationalism, and pushed expansions of rights (abolition, suffrage, end of serfdom). For the AP exam, you should connect Enlightenment philosophies to specific revolutions or reforms and use key thinkers/terms as evidence (CED Topic 5.1). For a focused review, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Enlightenment philosophers argued that reason and evidence—not tradition or religious authority—should guide politics and society. Key ideas: natural rights (John Locke: life, liberty, property), the social contract (Rousseau: government by consent), separation of powers (Montesquieu: checks on rulers), religious toleration and deism (Voltaire), critique of criminal justice (Beccaria: fair trials, proportional punishment), and confidence in progress, science, and free markets (Adam Smith and the Physiocrats). Philosophers also spread ideas in salons, coffeehouses, Masonic lodges, and encyclopedias (Diderot). These beliefs inspired Atlantic revolutions and reform movements by challenging monarchy and promoting expanded rights—exactly the context AP questions ask you to explain for Topic 5.1 and for DBQs/LEQs. For a focused review, check Fiveable’s Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice free-response skills with their practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Enlightenment thinkers shifted people’s ideas by putting reason, evidence, and individual rights at the center of politics and religion. Philosophers like John Locke argued for natural rights (life, liberty, property) and that governments exist by a social contract—if rulers violate rights, people can change them. Montesquieu pushed separation of powers; Rousseau emphasized popular sovereignty. On religion, Voltaire and other proponents of deism and religious toleration challenged church authority and argued that faith shouldn’t control government. These ideas spread in salons, coffeehouses, and print culture and helped justify Atlantic revolutions and later reforms (expanded suffrage, abolition, women’s rights). For the AP exam, this fits Unit 5.1: you can use these concepts in SAQs, DBQs, or LEQs when explaining intellectual causes of revolutions (see the Topic 5.1 study guide for summaries and primary-source examples: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2). For more review, check the Unit 5 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5) and practice 1,000+ questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Enlightenment ideas sparked revolutions because they challenged the political and social status quo. Think Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Voltaire: they argued for natural rights, the social contract, separation of powers, religious tolerance and rule by reason—ideas that undercut divine-right monarchy and hierarchies. Those ideas spread through salons, coffeehouses, Masonic lodges and print culture, giving literate elites and emerging middle classes a vocabulary to criticize rulers and demand representation, rights, and legal reform. Economic and social changes (like rising nationalism and industrialization) made these critiques more urgent. For the AP exam, use these concepts to contextualize and support a thesis (DBQ/LEQ): cite philosophers, diffusion mechanisms, and outcomes (e.g., expanded suffrage, abolition, constitutional change). For a quick refresher, check the Topic 5.1 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Natural rights and the social contract are related Enlightenment ideas but they answer different questions. Natural rights (John Locke) are the basic rights individuals have by virtue of being human—life, liberty, and property—that governments should protect. The social contract (Rousseau, Locke versions) is the imagined agreement explaining why people accept government: individuals consent to a government in order to secure those rights and maintain order. Put simply: natural rights are what people possess; the social contract is the justification for political authority that exists to protect those possessions. On the AP exam, be ready to cite philosophers (Locke, Rousseau) and connect these ideas to revolutions or constitutions in SAQs/LEQs. For a quick review of Topic 5.1, check the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and use 1,000+ practice questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Empiricism = the idea that knowledge comes from observation and experience, not just tradition or authority. In simple terms: you test things, gather evidence with your senses, and then form conclusions. Enlightenment thinkers used empiricism to challenge old claims (like unquestioned royal or religious authority) and to build ideas based on reason and evidence—think John Locke’s argument that people learn from experience and have natural rights. That led to new political ideas (social contract, individual rights), scientific progress, and institutions like salons and coffeehouses where people debated evidence-based ideas (CED keywords: reason, John Locke, salons, deism). On the AP exam, empiricism connects to Topic 5.1 because it explains the intellectual context for Atlantic revolutions and reform movements. For a quick CED-aligned review, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2). For extra practice, try Fiveable’s AP World practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Focus on these key Enlightenment thinkers—know their main ideas and one concrete example of influence for each: - John Locke—natural rights (life, liberty, property); influenced liberal revolutions and constitutions. - Jean-Jacques Rousseau—social contract, popular sovereignty; inspired democratic nationalism. - Montesquieu—separation of powers; influenced constitutional design. - Voltaire—religious toleration, critique of the Church; promoted deism and free expression. - Denis Diderot—editor of the Encyclopédie; spread Enlightenment ideas. - Cesare Beccaria—reform of criminal justice, opposed torture; influenced legal reforms. - Adam Smith (and Physiocrats like François Quesnay)—free-market ideas, critique of mercantilism; basis for capitalist economic change. - Mary Wollstonecraft & Olympe de Gouges—early feminism; argued for women’s rights (CED examples). These names and concepts (social contract, natural rights, salons, deism) show up on multiple-choice, SAQs, DBQs/LEQs—so link each thinker to a revolution or reform in your examples. Use the Topic 5.1 study guide for concise notes (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice 1000+ problems at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Enlightenment thinkers (Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu) shifted political ideas from rule by birth to rule by consent: natural rights, the social contract, and popular sovereignty. That meant political legitimacy came from “the people,” not just a king. As those ideas spread in salons, coffeehouses, print and Masonic lodges, people began to imagine political communities based on shared language, culture, and common rights—the basis for nationalism. Revolutions (especially the French Revolution) applied Enlightenment claims to create nation-states; colonial subjects used the same language of rights to demand independence in Latin America. Later 19th-century national unifications (Italy, Germany) drew on these ideas too. On the AP exam, you can use this causal chain for contextualization or as evidence in LEQs/DBQs: show how intellectual change (Enlightenment) led to political movements (nationalism). For a clear review, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Think of the Enlightenment as the ideas toolkit both revolutions borrowed. Philosophers like John Locke argued for natural rights, consent of the governed, and limited government—ideas the American revolutionaries cited in the Declaration of Independence and used as context for arguing colonial independence. French thinkers (Rousseau’s social contract, Montesquieu’s separation of powers, Voltaire’s critique of tradition and religion) gave French revolutionaries language to challenge aristocratic privilege and demand broader political and social change. Salons, coffeehouses, and print culture spread these ideas across the Atlantic, so revolutions didn’t just happen suddenly—they were preceded by new ways of thinking. On the AP exam, use Enlightenment thinkers as contextualization or to explain causation in a DBQ or LEQ; citing specific philosophers and showing how ideas translated into documents/actions scores well. For a focused review, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Enlightenment thinking had deep, long-term effects: it shifted political ideas toward individual natural rights, reason, and the social contract (Locke, Rousseau), which fueled Atlantic revolutions and calls for constitutional government and expanded suffrage. It encouraged checks on power (Montesquieu’s separation of powers), legal reform (Beccaria on criminal justice), economic debate (Adam Smith, physiocrats), and secularism/deism that reduced clerical control over public life. Over the 19th century these ideas helped abolition movements, the end of serfdom, growing nationalism, and early feminism (Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges, Seneca Falls). For the AP exam, link these developments to causation and continuity/change over time in essays and DBQs—use specific thinkers and reforms as evidence. For a focused review, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history) to drill examples and FRQ skills.

Enlightenment thinkers argued that reason and natural rights—not birth or tradition—should shape government. John Locke’s ideas about natural rights and consent of the governed inspired demands for expanded political participation (suffrage) and limits on monarchs; Rousseau’s social contract pushed people to claim collective political power. Philosophers like Voltaire and Diderot questioned religious and legal privilege, helping create reform movements that pressured states to end serfdom, expand male suffrage, and support abolitionist arguments against slavery. Women applied Enlightenment language to challenge gender hierarchies—Wollstonecraft and Olympe de Gouges used rights-based arguments that fed 19th-century feminism and events like Seneca Falls (1848). On the AP exam, these connections are perfect for LEQs and DBQs: use specific thinkers (Locke, Rousseau), texts (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman), and outcomes (abolition, expanded suffrage, end of serfdom) to show cause and continuity/change. For a quick review, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Mary Wollstonecraft is a key bridge between Enlightenment ideas and early feminism. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) she used Enlightenment concepts—reason, natural rights, and individualism (think Locke and the social contract)—to argue women aren’t naturally inferior but lack education and opportunity. She pushed for equal education, civic virtue, and access to professions, directly challenging gender hierarchies and traditional roles. Her arguments became an illustrative example in Topic 5.1 of how Enlightenment thought spurred reform movements (CED: “Demands for women’s rights”). Wollstonecraft didn’t create modern suffrage, but her ideas influenced 19th-century feminists (e.g., Seneca Falls) and helped legitimize later demands for political and legal equality. For review, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Start with a clear, arguable thesis that links Enlightenment ideas to specific revolutionary changes (e.g., “Enlightenment concepts of natural rights and the social contract drove political challenges to monarchies in the American and French Revolutions, while also inspiring later abolition and feminist movements”). Contextualize briefly—show diffusion via salons, coffeehouses, books, and print culture. Use at least four documents to support your claim, describing their content and using them in your argument (not just quoting). Bring in outside evidence: Locke on natural rights, Rousseau on the social contract, Montesquieu on separation of powers, Voltaire on religious toleration, Wollstonecraft on women’s rights (CED keywords). For two documents, explain POV/purpose/audience (sourcing). Show complexity: acknowledge variations—some revolutions applied Enlightenment ideas fully, others selectively; link to later reforms like abolition and suffrage. End by tying back to thesis. For quick review and primary-example lists, see the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2), unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Short answer: both—the Enlightenment mainly gave women powerful new arguments, but those ideas also helped produce some real gains over time. Philosophers’ language about natural rights, reason, and equality (Locke, social contract ideas) inspired writers like Mary Wollstonecraft and Olympe de Gouges, who supplied feminist arguments used later by activists. Immediate legal change was limited—most Enlightenment thinkers still accepted gender hierarchies—but the ideas fueled reform movements (e.g., Seneca Falls, 1848) and helped shift public debate, leading slowly to expanded rights like suffrage in the late 19th–20th centuries. For AP success, use specific examples (Wollstonecraft, De Gouges, Seneca Falls) and show continuity/change over time in an LEQ/DBQ. For a quick refresher, check the Topic 5.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).

Some Enlightenment thinkers questioned religion because they prioritized reason, empirical evidence, and individual rights over tradition. Philosophers like Voltaire, Diderot, and some salon participants criticized organized religion for superstition, intolerance, and political power that blocked progress; many favored deism (a rational God who doesn’t intervene) or secular explanations. Others—like John Locke or more conservative thinkers—didn’t reject religion because they saw it as a source of moral order, social stability, or natural rights compatible with faith. Differences came from background (urban salon intellectuals vs. clergy-friendly elites), goals (radical reform vs. stable reform), and audience (writers for public coffeehouses vs. magistrates). For the AP exam, link these ideas to keywords (deism, salons, social contract, Voltaire, Diderot, Mary Wollstonecraft) and use them for contextualization and evidence in essays or short answers (see the Topic 5.1 study guide on Fiveable: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-5/enlightenment/study-guide/baHBawqOSScLKnFlhLX2). For extra practice, try problems at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history.