World Literature I

6.6 Korean classical literature

Citation:

Korean classical literature emerged from oral traditions, blending native storytelling with Chinese influences. Early forms included pansori performances, shamanic chants, and folk tales that established common themes and narrative structures.

Poetry formed the cornerstone of classical Korean literature, with distinct forms like hyangga, sijo, and kasa evolving over time. Prose developed from Buddhist and historical texts, gradually incorporating more Korean vernacular alongside Chinese.

Origins of Korean literature

Korean literature emerged from a rich oral tradition of myths, legends, and folk tales passed down through generations
Early Korean literary forms blended native storytelling practices with influences from neighboring cultures, particularly China

Early oral traditions

Pansori developed as a form of musical storytelling performance art
Shamanic rituals and ceremonies incorporated poetic chants and narrative elements
Folk tales like "The Story of Shim Cheong" preserved cultural values and moral lessons
Oral traditions laid the foundation for later written literature by establishing common themes and narrative structures

Chinese influence on writing

Introduction of Chinese characters (hanja) to Korea around 4th century CE revolutionized written communication
Classical Chinese became the primary written language for Korean elite and scholars
Korean writers adapted Chinese literary forms like poetry and historical chronicles
Bilingual system emerged with Korean spoken language and Chinese written language coexisting

Classical Korean poetry

Poetry formed the cornerstone of classical Korean literature, evolving distinct forms and styles
Korean poets infused Chinese-influenced structures with native sensibilities and themes

Hyangga tradition

Earliest form of Korean vernacular poetry, flourished during Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla periods (6th-10th centuries)
Composed in native Korean language using modified Chinese characters called idu
Typically consisted of four, eight, or ten lines with a fixed syllable count
Often expressed Buddhist themes or praised notable figures in Korean history
Example: "Ode to Knight Kipa" by Wolmyong, celebrating a Silla dynasty hero

Sijo vs kasa forms

Sijo
- Short lyric poem of three lines, each with 14-16 syllables
- Originated in Goryeo dynasty but flourished in Joseon period
- Often explored themes of nature, love, and Confucian philosophy
- Example: Hwang Jini's famous sijo "I will break the back of this long, midwinter night"
Kasa
- Longer form poem with variable line length, typically sung or chanted
- Developed during late Goryeo and early Joseon periods
- Often narrative in structure, describing landscapes, historical events, or moral teachings
- Example: Jeong Cheol's "Song of the Five Friends" praising the virtues of water, rock, bamboo, pine, and plum blossoms

Development of prose

Prose writing in Korea evolved from early Buddhist and historical texts to more diverse forms of narrative literature
Shift from purely Chinese language works to incorporation of Korean vernacular marked significant development

Buddhist narratives

Early prose works often focused on Buddhist teachings and parables
Biographies of eminent monks and miracle tales popularized Buddhist concepts
"Samguk Yusa" (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) by Iryeon combined historical accounts with Buddhist legends
Allegorical tales like "The Cloud Dream of the Nine" by Kim Manjung explored Buddhist themes of illusion and enlightenment

Historical chronicles

Official dynastic histories recorded in classical Chinese
"Samguk Sagi" (History of the Three Kingdoms) by Kim Busik established model for later historical writing
Private histories and memoirs emerged, offering alternative perspectives on historical events
Development of "yadam" (unofficial histories) incorporated anecdotes and gossip about historical figures

Major literary periods

Korean literature evolved through distinct historical eras, each contributing unique characteristics and innovations
Political and social changes in each period significantly influenced literary production and themes

Three Kingdoms era

Period of competing states (Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla) from 57 BCE to 935 CE
Early development of written literature, primarily in Chinese characters
Emergence of hyangga poetry and historical records
Buddhist influence began to shape literary themes and forms
Key work: "Hwandan Gogi" (Ancient Records of Korea), now lost but referenced in later texts

Goryeo dynasty literature

Unified Korean state from 918 to 1392 CE
Flourishing of Buddhist literature and poetry
Development of sijo and kasa poetic forms
Increased use of Korean vernacular in writing, though Chinese remained dominant
Notable author: Yi Kyubo, renowned for his Chinese-language poetry and prose

Joseon dynasty works

Longest-ruling Korean dynasty from 1392 to 1910
Neo-Confucianism became dominant philosophy, influencing literary themes
Korean alphabet (Hangul) invented in 1443, gradually impacting literature
Rise of vernacular fiction and popular literature
Key genres: yeonhaengnok (travel diaries), yadam (unofficial histories), and gasa (long form poetry)

Themes in classical Korean literature

Classical Korean literature explored a wide range of themes reflecting the cultural, philosophical, and natural environment
Writers often blended multiple influences to create uniquely Korean expressions

Nature and seasons

Natural world served as a primary source of inspiration and metaphor
Changing seasons symbolized human emotions and life cycles
Mountains, rivers, and flowers frequently personified or imbued with spiritual significance
Example: Yun Seon-do's sijo cycle "The Five Friends" celebrating pine, bamboo, plum, chrysanthemum, and orchid

Confucian values

Loyalty to the state and filial piety emphasized in many works
Moral cultivation and self-improvement as central themes
Social hierarchy and proper relationships explored in both poetry and prose
Historical narratives often focused on exemplary Confucian figures
Example: "The Tale of Chunhyang" exploring themes of loyalty in love and resistance to corruption

Buddhist philosophy

Impermanence of worldly existence as a recurring motif
Exploration of karma and rebirth in narrative works
Meditation and enlightenment experiences described in poetry
Integration of Buddhist concepts with native Korean spirituality
Example: "The Song of the Comet" by Hyesim, reflecting on the transient nature of life

Key authors and works

Classical Korean literature features numerous influential writers whose works shaped the literary tradition
Many authors excelled in multiple genres, demonstrating versatility in both Chinese and Korean language composition

Choe Chiwon's contributions

9th-century scholar and poet active during late Unified Silla period
Wrote extensively in classical Chinese, earning fame in both Korea and China
Composed numerous poems, essays, and official documents
"Gyewon Pilgyong" collection showcases his mastery of Chinese-style poetry
Advocated for harmony between native Korean traditions and Chinese learning

Kim Sisup's novels

15th-century author and scholar during early Joseon dynasty
Pioneered Korean vernacular fiction with "A Nine Cloud Dream" (Kuunmong)
Blended Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucian themes in his narrative works
"A New Account of the Golden Turtle" (Geumo Sinhwa) collection of five stories in classical Chinese
His works influenced later development of Korean prose fiction

Hwang Jini's poetry

16th-century female poet and gisaeng (courtesan) during Joseon dynasty
Renowned for her sijo poetry, combining technical skill with emotional depth
Explored themes of love, nature, and the passage of time
Her works challenged social conventions and expressed a strong female voice
Famous sijo "I will break the back of this long, midwinter night" exemplifies her poetic style

Literary techniques

Classical Korean literature employed various techniques to convey meaning and aesthetic beauty
Writers navigated between Chinese literary traditions and native Korean expressions

Use of Chinese characters

Hanja (Chinese characters) used for writing in classical Chinese and transcribing Korean
Idu system adapted Chinese characters to represent Korean grammar and vocabulary
Hyangchal system used Chinese characters purely for their sound values to write Korean
Writers often employed complex wordplay and allusions based on Chinese characters

Korean alphabet development

Creation of Hangul in 1443 by King Sejong and scholars at the Hall of Worthies
Initially used primarily for popular literature and women's writing
Gradually incorporated into more formal literature, especially in later Joseon period
Allowed for more accurate representation of Korean sounds and grammar
Example: "Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven," earliest known work using Hangul

Symbolism in Korean literature

Natural elements often represented human qualities or emotions
Seasons symbolized stages of life or changing fortunes
Animals and plants carried specific cultural meanings (pine for loyalty, plum blossom for perseverance)
Colors associated with directions, elements, and cosmic principles
Use of symbolic names and places to convey character traits or narrative themes

Classical Korean literature reflected and was shaped by the social structures and cultural norms of its time
Literary production and consumption were closely tied to social class and gender roles

Role of aristocracy

Yangban (noble) class dominated literary production in classical period
Mastery of Chinese classics and composition considered essential for elite status
Literary competitions and poetry gatherings important social activities for aristocrats
Private academies (seowon) served as centers of literary education and production
Some yangban authors critiqued social inequality through their works

Women in Korean literature

Traditional restrictions limited women's access to formal education and literary circles
Gisaeng (female entertainers) played important role in preserving and creating poetry
Development of Hangul allowed more women to engage in writing, especially in later periods
Female-authored works often focused on domestic life, emotions, and personal experiences
Notable authors: Heo Nanseolheon, Lady Hyegyeong (author of "Memoirs of Lady Hyegyeong")

Influence of court culture

Royal court served as center of literary activity and patronage
Official histories and anthologies commissioned by monarchs
Court poets composed works for state ceremonies and royal occasions
Literary skill often path to political advancement for scholars and officials
Censorship and political pressures influenced content and style of court-related literature

Legacy and influence

Classical Korean literature laid the foundation for modern Korean literary traditions
Increased global interest has led to greater recognition and study of Korean classics

Impact on modern Korean literature

Classical forms like sijo continue to inspire contemporary poets
Themes and motifs from classical literature reinterpreted in modern works
Historical novels and dramas draw heavily on classical literary sources
Modern authors engage in dialogue with classical texts through adaptation and critique
Revival of interest in classical literature as part of cultural identity formation

Global recognition of classics

Increased translation of classical Korean works into multiple languages
Growing academic interest in Korean literature in international universities
UNESCO recognition of some classical Korean texts as world heritage
Korean classical literature included in world literature curricula and anthologies
Film and television adaptations bringing classical stories to global audiences

Key Terms to Review (18)

Romantic love: Romantic love is an emotional and passionate connection between individuals that often encompasses attraction, desire, and a deep sense of intimacy. This type of love typically includes ideals such as devotion, longing, and sometimes suffering, making it a central theme in literature and art. In various cultural contexts, particularly within the realm of classical literature, romantic love is often portrayed as an intense and sometimes tumultuous experience that drives the narrative forward.

Neo-Confucianism: Neo-Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical movement that emerged in the 11th century as a response to the challenges posed by Buddhism and Daoism, reviving and reformulating Confucian ideas. It emphasizes moral self-cultivation, social harmony, and the importance of education, becoming a dominant ideology in East Asia, particularly in Korea during the Joseon Dynasty, shaping its cultural and literary traditions.

Historical fiction: Historical fiction is a literary genre that incorporates real historical events, settings, and figures into its narratives while often blending them with fictional characters and plotlines. This genre allows readers to experience different times and places through storytelling, often emphasizing the emotional and social context of the historical period depicted. By intertwining fact and fiction, historical fiction seeks to provide insights into the human experience within specific historical frameworks.

Social hierarchy: Social hierarchy refers to the arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on various factors such as wealth, power, prestige, or social status. This structure determines how resources and opportunities are distributed and influences social interactions and relationships. In many cultures, including those represented in Korean classical literature, social hierarchy is a significant theme that reflects the values, beliefs, and customs of the time.

Joseon Dynasty: The Joseon Dynasty was a Korean dynastic kingdom that lasted for approximately five centuries, from 1392 to 1910, marking a significant period in Korean history. This era is characterized by the establishment of Confucianism as the state ideology, the development of a unique Korean culture, and notable advancements in literature, science, and technology.

Heo Gyun: Heo Gyun was a prominent Korean writer and scholar during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, best known for his work 'The Tale of Hong Gildong'. This story is often considered one of the first Korean novels and features themes of social justice, class struggle, and the search for identity. Heo Gyun's contributions to Korean classical literature highlight the importance of narrative forms and character development during this era.

Goryeo Dynasty: The Goryeo Dynasty was a Korean kingdom that lasted from 918 to 1392, known for its cultural and political achievements as well as the establishment of a unified Korean identity. It played a significant role in the development of Korean classical literature, especially through its promotion of Buddhism and Confucianism, which influenced literary themes and styles during this period.

Kim si-seup: Kim si-seup refers to a significant literary movement and figure in Korean classical literature, particularly during the late Joseon Dynasty. This term embodies both a specific author, who is known for his contributions to Korean poetry and prose, as well as the broader cultural context that shaped Korean literary traditions in this period, emphasizing themes of nature, morality, and personal reflection.

The Tale of Hong Gildong: The Tale of Hong Gildong is a 17th-century Korean literary work that tells the story of a boy born as an illegitimate child who seeks to find his place in society. The narrative explores themes of social justice, class disparity, and personal identity, making it a vital part of Korean classical literature and reflecting the struggles against societal norms and expectations.

Cheonhajangsaeng: Cheonhajangsaeng is a traditional Korean philosophical concept that embodies the idea of eternal life and immortality, often associated with the pursuit of harmony between the body and the cosmos. This term reflects a deep understanding of nature, the universe, and the human condition, illustrating how classical Korean literature often intertwines themes of life, death, and spiritual enlightenment.

Sijo: Sijo is a traditional Korean form of poetry that typically consists of three lines, each with a specific syllable count and structure. This poetic form is characterized by its focus on nature, philosophy, and emotions, often using metaphor and imagery to convey deeper meanings. The sijo is significant in Korean classical literature, embodying the cultural values and aesthetics of its time.

Gasa: Gasa is a form of Korean classical poetry that emerged during the Joseon Dynasty, characterized by its unique structure and themes. It typically features a mix of prose and verse, often reflecting personal feelings, social commentary, and philosophical musings, making it an essential part of Korean literary heritage.

Buddhism: Buddhism is a spiritual and philosophical tradition founded in the 5th century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha. It emphasizes the path to enlightenment through practices such as meditation, ethical living, and understanding the nature of reality. The teachings of Buddhism have influenced various cultures and literatures across Asia, shaping literary themes and philosophical ideas in different regions.

Narrative poetry: Narrative poetry is a form of poetry that tells a story, featuring a plot, characters, and a structured sequence of events. It often includes elements like dialogue, descriptions, and a strong sense of setting to engage readers in the unfolding tale. This genre allows poets to convey complex narratives and emotions, making it a crucial aspect of various literary traditions, including those from Japan and Korea.

Confucianism: Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing moral integrity, social harmony, and respect for hierarchy. This framework has influenced various aspects of culture and literature, shaping themes of duty, virtue, and the nature of good and evil, while also guiding personal identity and self-discovery through relationships and societal roles.

Imagery: Imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language that appeals to the senses, helping to create mental pictures and evoke emotions in readers. It enhances the reader's experience by allowing them to visualize scenes, feel emotions, and connect with the themes expressed in various forms of writing.

Romanticism: Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and the beauty of nature as a reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment. This movement celebrated personal expression, imagination, and a deep connection to nature, often exploring themes of love, morality, and the human experience.

Metaphor: A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things, suggesting that one thing is another to highlight similarities. This tool helps convey deeper meanings and emotions in literature by creating vivid imagery and connections that resonate with the reader.

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