World History – Before 1500

🏰World History – Before 1500 Unit 4 – The Near East

The Near East saw the rise of influential civilizations like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Persia from 3500 BCE to 330 BCE. These societies developed complex urban centers, writing systems, and legal codes, shaping the foundations of human civilization. The region's geography, including the Fertile Crescent and Nile Valley, enabled agricultural advancements and trade. This led to technological innovations, cultural developments, and the emergence of organized religions that continue to impact the world today.

Key Civilizations and Empires

  • Mesopotamian civilizations emerged in the Fertile Crescent region (modern-day Iraq, Syria, and parts of Turkey) around 3500 BCE
    • Included Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria
    • Developed complex urban centers, writing systems (cuneiform), and legal codes (Code of Hammurabi)
  • Ancient Egypt arose along the Nile River valley around 3100 BCE
    • Unified under the rule of pharaohs who were considered divine
    • Built monumental structures such as the pyramids and temples
    • Developed hieroglyphic writing system and advanced knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine
  • Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire) was founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BCE
    • Expanded to control vast territories from the Indus Valley to the Mediterranean Sea
    • Established a centralized government, efficient road networks, and a postal system
    • Practiced religious tolerance and adopted elements from conquered cultures
  • Neo-Babylonian Empire emerged in 626 BCE after the fall of the Assyrian Empire
    • King Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt the city of Babylon and constructed the Hanging Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
  • Hittite Empire thrived in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) from c. 1600-1200 BCE
    • Known for their skilled metalworking, particularly in iron
    • Developed a legal system with treaties and diplomatic relations with neighboring states

Geography and Climate

  • The Near East encompasses regions in Western Asia, including the Fertile Crescent, Anatolia, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula
  • Fertile Crescent is a crescent-shaped region that includes the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys, known for its rich soil and favorable conditions for agriculture
    • Allowed for the development of early civilizations and the Neolithic Revolution (transition from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture)
  • Nile River valley in Egypt provided annual flooding that deposited fertile silt, enabling agriculture and supporting a large population
    • Predictable flooding led to the development of irrigation systems and a centralized government to manage resources
  • Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) is a mountainous region with a diverse landscape, including plateaus, valleys, and coastal plains
    • Strategic location facilitated trade and cultural exchange between Europe, Asia, and Africa
  • Levant (eastern Mediterranean coast) served as a crucial trade hub connecting Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world
  • Arabian Peninsula is characterized by vast deserts, oases, and coastal regions along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf
    • Deserts posed challenges for settlement but also facilitated trade routes (incense trade) and nomadic pastoralism
  • Climate in the Near East is generally hot and arid, with some regional variations
    • Mesopotamia and Egypt relied on river systems for irrigation and agriculture
    • Seasonal rainfall in the Levant and parts of Anatolia supported dry farming and pastoralism

Timeline of Major Events

  • c. 10,000 BCE: Neolithic Revolution begins in the Fertile Crescent, marking the transition from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture
  • c. 3500 BCE: Emergence of Sumerian city-states in Mesopotamia, development of cuneiform writing
  • c. 3100 BCE: Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the rule of the first pharaoh, Narmer
  • c. 2334 BCE: Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great, first empire in Mesopotamia
  • c. 1792-1750 BCE: Reign of Hammurabi, king of Babylon, known for his legal code (Code of Hammurabi)
  • c. 1600-1200 BCE: Hittite Empire thrives in Anatolia, known for their ironworking and legal system
  • c. 1550-1069 BCE: New Kingdom period in Egypt, marked by military conquests, monumental building projects, and the rule of notable pharaohs (Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Ramses II)
  • c. 1100 BCE: Collapse of the Hittite Empire and the Late Bronze Age civilizations in the Near East
  • 626-539 BCE: Neo-Babylonian Empire, with the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
  • 550-330 BCE: Achaemenid Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, largest empire of the ancient world
  • 334-323 BCE: Conquests of Alexander the Great, leading to the Hellenistic period in the Near East

Cultural and Religious Developments

  • Polytheistic religions were prevalent in the Near East, with each civilization having its own pantheon of gods and goddesses
    • Mesopotamian religion included deities such as Enki, Enlil, and Inanna, associated with natural phenomena and human activities
    • Egyptian religion centered around the worship of gods like Ra, Osiris, and Isis, with the pharaoh considered a living god
  • Zoroastrianism emerged in ancient Persia during the Achaemenid Empire
    • Founded by the prophet Zoroaster, who taught about the cosmic struggle between good and evil
    • Emphasized individual choice and moral responsibility
  • Judaism developed in the Levant, with the belief in one God (Yahweh) and the importance of the Covenant
    • Key figures include Abraham, Moses, and the prophets
    • Torah contains the religious laws and teachings central to Jewish faith
  • Art and architecture reflected religious beliefs and the power of rulers
    • Ziggurats in Mesopotamia served as temples and symbolized the connection between the divine and human realms
    • Egyptian pyramids and temples were built to honor the pharaohs and gods, featuring hieroglyphic inscriptions and wall paintings
    • Persian art and architecture blended elements from various cultures within the empire (Persepolis)
  • Cuneiform and hieroglyphics were the primary writing systems in Mesopotamia and Egypt, respectively
    • Used for record-keeping, religious texts, and literary works (Epic of Gilgamesh, Egyptian Book of the Dead)
  • Near Eastern mythology and literature influenced later Greek and Roman cultures
    • Gilgamesh epic, featuring themes of friendship, mortality, and the search for immortality
    • Egyptian myths of Osiris and Isis, representing death, resurrection, and the cycle of nature

Economic Systems and Trade

  • Agriculture was the foundation of Near Eastern economies, supported by irrigation systems and the fertile soils of river valleys
    • Mesopotamia and Egypt were known for their production of grains (barley, wheat), vegetables, and fruits (dates, figs)
    • Livestock, including cattle, sheep, and goats, provided meat, dairy, and wool
  • Specialization and division of labor emerged with the growth of cities and complex societies
    • Artisans and craftsmen produced goods such as pottery, textiles, and metalwork
    • Scribes played a crucial role in administration, record-keeping, and the transmission of knowledge
  • Trade networks connected the Near Eastern civilizations with each other and neighboring regions
    • Mesopotamia traded with the Indus Valley Civilization, exchanging goods like textiles, grains, and precious stones
    • Egypt engaged in trade with Nubia (gold, ivory, ebony) and the Levant (cedar wood, olive oil)
    • Persian Royal Road facilitated trade and communication within the Achaemenid Empire
  • Long-distance trade routes, such as the Incense Route and the Silk Roads (later period), fostered cultural exchange and the spread of ideas
    • Arabian Peninsula was a key source of frankincense and myrrh, prized for religious ceremonies and medicinal purposes
  • Currencies and standardized weights and measures developed to facilitate trade
    • Silver and grain were used as common currencies in Mesopotamia
    • Egyptians used a system of weights based on the value of metals (gold, silver, copper)

Technological and Scientific Advancements

  • Irrigation systems and water management techniques were developed to support agriculture in arid regions
    • Mesopotamians built canals, levees, and dams to control the flow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
    • Egyptians created a system of basins and canals to harness the annual flooding of the Nile
  • Innovations in agriculture and animal husbandry increased food production and population growth
    • Development of the plow, sickle, and other farming tools
    • Domestication of crops (wheat, barley, lentils) and animals (cattle, sheep, goats)
  • Metalworking advancements, particularly in bronze and later iron, led to the production of tools, weapons, and decorative objects
    • Hittites were known for their skill in ironworking, which gave them a military advantage
  • Developments in mathematics and astronomy were driven by practical needs and religious beliefs
    • Mesopotamians created a sexagesimal number system (base 60) and used it for astronomical calculations
    • Egyptians developed a decimal system and advanced geometry for surveying and construction
  • Architectural and engineering feats demonstrated the technical capabilities of Near Eastern civilizations
    • Pyramids of Giza in Egypt showcased precision in construction and alignment with astronomical bodies
    • Hanging Gardens of Babylon, with its tiered gardens and irrigation system, exemplified Babylonian engineering
  • Advancements in medicine and health practices emerged from empirical observations and religious beliefs
    • Mesopotamian medicine included herbal remedies, surgeries, and the belief that illnesses were caused by supernatural forces
    • Egyptian medicine emphasized hygiene, mummification practices, and the use of medicinal plants (papyrus)

Social Structures and Governance

  • Near Eastern societies were hierarchical, with the ruling class (kings, pharaohs) at the top and the common people at the bottom
    • Mesopotamian city-states were ruled by kings who claimed divine authority and were supported by a class of priests and officials
    • Egyptian society was headed by the pharaoh, considered a living god, with a complex bureaucracy and a powerful priesthood
  • Priests and religious institutions played a significant role in governance and social order
    • Temples served as centers of economic activity, owning land and controlling resources
    • Priests performed religious ceremonies, maintained religious knowledge, and advised the rulers
  • Social mobility was limited, with occupations and roles often determined by family lineage
    • Scribes, artisans, and merchants formed a middle class in Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies
    • Slaves, often captured in wars or as a result of debt, were at the bottom of the social hierarchy
  • Women's roles and rights varied across Near Eastern societies
    • In Mesopotamia, women could own property, engage in business, and serve as priestesses
    • Egyptian women had more legal rights compared to other ancient societies, with some holding positions of power (Hatshepsut)
  • Legal systems and codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, regulated social behavior and established penalties for crimes
    • Laws covered issues related to property, family, trade, and criminal offenses
    • Legal contracts and agreements were recorded on clay tablets or papyrus

Legacy and Global Impact

  • Near Eastern civilizations laid the foundation for the development of writing, law, and organized religion
    • Cuneiform and hieroglyphics influenced later writing systems in the region
    • Legal codes and the concept of written law shaped the legal systems of subsequent civilizations
    • Monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) trace their roots to the religious traditions of the Near East
  • Contributions to science, mathematics, and astronomy had a lasting impact on later civilizations
    • Babylonian astronomical observations and calculations influenced Greek and Islamic astronomy
    • Egyptian medical practices and knowledge were adopted and expanded by Greek and Roman physicians
  • Art, architecture, and literature from the Near East inspired and influenced later cultures
    • Greek and Roman architecture drew inspiration from Egyptian and Persian styles
    • Biblical literature and mythology incorporated elements from Mesopotamian and Egyptian literary traditions
  • Political and military legacies of Near Eastern empires shaped the course of history
    • Persian Empire's model of centralized administration and religious tolerance influenced later empires (Alexander the Great, Roman Empire)
    • Conquests of Alexander the Great led to the spread of Hellenistic culture and the fusion of Greek and Near Eastern traditions
  • Trade networks established by Near Eastern civilizations facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices
    • Silk Roads, connecting the Near East with Central Asia and China, became a major conduit for trade and cultural exchange
    • Incense trade routes linked the Arabian Peninsula with the Mediterranean world, fostering economic and cultural ties


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.

© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.