🏺Archaeology of Southeast Asia Unit 5 – Archaeological Sites in Southeast Asia

Key Archaeological Sites

• Ban Chiang (Thailand) Neolithic site with early evidence of rice cultivation and bronze metallurgy
  • Discovered in 1966 by Stephen Young and excavated by Chester Gorman and Pisit Charoenwongsa
  • Occupied from ~4100 BCE to 200 CE, with the earliest evidence of bronze production in Southeast Asia
• Angkor Wat (Cambodia) massive Hindu-Buddhist temple complex built in the 12th century CE
  • Constructed during the reign of King Suryavarman II as a state temple and eventual mausoleum
  • Represents the pinnacle of Khmer architecture and symbolizes the cosmic world in miniature
• Niah Cave (Malaysia) Paleolithic site with evidence of early human habitation and burial practices
  • Excavated by Tom Harrisson in the 1950s and 1960s, yielding the oldest known human remains in Southeast Asia
  • "Deep Skull" found in the West Mouth section, dated to ~39,000-45,000 years ago
• Bagan (Myanmar) ancient city with thousands of Buddhist temples and monuments from the 11th-13th centuries CE
  • Flourished as the capital of the Pagan Kingdom, which unified the regions that would later constitute modern Myanmar
  • Notable temples include Ananda, Dhammayangyi, and Shwezigon Pagoda
• Borobudur (Indonesia) massive Buddhist monument from the 8th-9th centuries CE
  • Built during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty as a shrine to Lord Buddha and a pilgrimage site
  • Consists of nine stacked platforms (six square and three circular) topped by a central dome, adorned with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues
• Óc Eo (Vietnam) port city and trading center of the early Funan Kingdom (1st-6th centuries CE)
  • Excavated by Louis Malleret in the 1940s, revealing a complex system of canals, brick structures, and imported artifacts
  • Played a crucial role in the maritime trade network connecting Southeast Asia with India, China, and the Mediterranean world

Cultural Periods and Chronology

• Paleolithic (1,000,000-10,000 BCE) characterized by early human migration, hunter-gatherer societies, and stone tool technology
  • Homo erectus and Homo sapiens present in Southeast Asia, as evidenced by the "Java Man" and "Deep Skull" finds
  • Hoabinhian culture (named after the site of Hòa Bình in Vietnam) developed a distinct toolkit adapted to the tropical environment
• Neolithic (10,000-2,000 BCE) marked by the emergence of agriculture, sedentism, and pottery production
  • Early evidence of rice cultivation and domesticated animals (pigs, chickens, and water buffalo) in the Yangtze and Yellow River valleys of China
  • Austronesian expansion from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia and the Pacific, introducing new farming and navigational technologies
• Bronze Age (2,000-500 BCE) saw the development of bronze metallurgy and the rise of complex societies
  • Đông Sơn culture (named after the site in Vietnam) known for its elaborate bronze drums and weapons
  • Sa Huỳnh culture (central Vietnam) produced distinctive nephrite and glass ornaments, reflecting long-distance trade connections
• Iron Age (500 BCE-500 CE) characterized by the spread of iron technology and the emergence of early states and empires
  • Funan Kingdom (lower Mekong Delta) as the earliest known polity in Southeast Asia, heavily influenced by Indian culture and religion
  • Tarumanagara Kingdom (West Java) left behind inscriptions in Sanskrit and early examples of Hindu and Buddhist art
• Classical Period (500-1500 CE) marked by the florescence of Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms and the impact of maritime trade
  • Srivijaya Empire (Sumatra) controlled the strategic Strait of Malacca and patronized Buddhist learning
  • Khmer Empire (Cambodia) reached its apogee under Jayavarman VII, who constructed the massive temple complexes of Angkor Thom and Bayon
• Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) saw the arrival of European colonial powers and the gradual decline of traditional kingdoms
  • Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and British established trading posts and colonies throughout Southeast Asia
  • Intensification of cash crop production (spices, coffee, and sugar) and the development of plantation economies
• Modern Period (1800 CE-present) characterized by the rise of nationalism, decolonization, and the formation of modern nation-states
  • Independence movements and wars of liberation against colonial powers (Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines)
  • Rapid economic development, urbanization, and globalization in the late 20th and early 21st centuries

Excavation Techniques and Methods

• Survey involves the systematic search for and recording of archaeological sites and features within a defined area
  • Techniques include pedestrian survey, aerial photography, and remote sensing (LiDAR and satellite imagery)
  • Allows archaeologists to identify patterns of settlement, resource exploitation, and landscape modification
• Excavation is the controlled removal and recording of archaeological deposits and features
  • Stratigraphic excavation follows the natural layers of soil deposition, allowing for the reconstruction of site formation processes
  • Arbitrary levels (usually 10 cm) used when natural strata are not apparent or to maintain consistent vertical control
• Screening involves sifting excavated soil through wire mesh to recover small artifacts and ecofacts
  • Mesh sizes vary depending on research questions and soil conditions (1/4 inch, 1/8 inch, and fine screens for flotation)
  • Wet screening using water to wash soil through the mesh, useful for clay-rich or waterlogged deposits
• Flotation is a method for recovering small botanical and faunal remains from soil samples
  • Light fraction (charred seeds, charcoal) floats to the surface, while heavy fraction (bones, lithics) sinks to the bottom
  • Allows for the reconstruction of past diets, agricultural practices, and environmental conditions
• Spatial recording documents the precise location of artifacts, features, and samples within a site
  • Techniques include tape-and-compass mapping, total station survey, and GPS/GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)
  • Enables the creation of detailed site maps and 3D models for spatial analysis and interpretation
• Dating methods provide chronological control for archaeological deposits and artifacts
  • Relative dating based on stratigraphy, seriation, and typology (artifact styles and technologies)
  • Absolute dating using radiocarbon (14C), potassium-argon (K-Ar), and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL)

Artifacts and Material Culture

• Pottery one of the most common and diagnostic artifact types in Southeast Asian archaeology
  • Includes earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain vessels used for cooking, storage, and serving
  • Decorative techniques (incising, impressing, and painting) and forms (bowls, jars, and dishes) vary by cultural period and region
• Lithics stone tools and debitage (flakes and cores) reflecting ancient technology and subsistence practices
  • Paleolithic tools include hand axes, choppers, and flake tools made from locally available raw materials (quartzite, chert, and basalt)
  • Neolithic and Bronze Age tools include polished stone adzes, axes, and chisels used for woodworking and land clearance
• Metals bronze and iron artifacts indicating the emergence of complex societies and specialized craftsmanship
  • Bronze drums, bells, and weapons (Đông Sơn and Dian cultures) reflecting ritual practices and social hierarchy
  • Iron tools (sickles, plowshares, and spades) and weapons (swords, spearheads, and arrowheads) enabling agricultural intensification and warfare
• Beads and ornaments personal adornments made from a variety of materials (glass, carnelian, agate, and gold)
  • Indicative of long-distance trade networks and cultural interactions with India, China, and the Middle East
  • Sa Huỳnh culture known for its distinctive bicephalous (two-headed) nephrite animal pendants and lingling-o earrings
• Architectural remains brick and stone structures reflecting the development of urban centers and religious monuments
  • Candi (Hindu and Buddhist temples) in Indonesia and Malaysia, often with elaborate sculptural decoration and inscriptions
  • Khmer temples (Angkor Wat and Bayon) demonstrating the power and wealth of the Khmer Empire and its rulers
• Organic materials botanical and faunal remains providing insights into past environments, subsistence practices, and trade
  • Charred rice grains and husks indicating the antiquity and spread of rice agriculture in Southeast Asia
  • Animal bones (pig, chicken, and water buffalo) reflecting patterns of domestication and animal husbandry
  • Spices (cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon) and aromatic woods (sandalwood and aloeswood) as high-value trade commodities

Environmental and Geological Context

• Tropical climate characterized by high temperatures, humidity, and rainfall, shaping the region's ecosystems and human adaptations
  • Monsoon system bringing seasonal rains and influencing agricultural cycles and settlement patterns
  • Tropical rainforests providing a diverse array of plant and animal resources for human exploitation
• Volcanic activity resulting from the collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates
  • Volcanic eruptions (Toba and Krakatoa) causing widespread destruction and environmental impacts
  • Volcanic soils (andisols) rich in nutrients and supporting intensive agriculture and population growth
• Coastal environments including beaches, estuaries, and mangrove swamps, crucial for maritime trade and fishing
  • Sea level changes during the Pleistocene and Holocene affecting shoreline configuration and site preservation
  • Shell middens accumulations of marine and estuarine shellfish remains, reflecting coastal subsistence practices
• Karst landscapes formed by the dissolution of limestone bedrock, creating caves and rock shelters used for habitation and burial
  • Niah Cave (Malaysia) and Tabon Cave (Philippines) containing early human remains and cultural deposits
  • Gunung Mulu National Park (Malaysia) and Ha Long Bay (Vietnam) as UNESCO World Heritage Sites with extensive karst formations
• Alluvial plains and river valleys formed by the deposition of sediment from major river systems (Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Irrawaddy)
  • Fertile soils supporting rice agriculture and the development of early states and urban centers
  • Annual flooding replenishing soil nutrients and providing water for irrigation
• Paleoenvironmental records pollen, phytoliths, and charcoal preserved in lake and swamp sediments, providing long-term records of vegetation and climate change
  • Indicators of human impacts on the environment, such as deforestation, burning, and cultivation
  • Proxy evidence for the timing and nature of major climatic events (El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Indian Ocean Dipole)

Societal Insights and Interpretations

• Social complexity the development of hierarchical societies with specialized roles, social stratification, and centralized authority
  • Evidenced by the presence of monumental architecture, prestige goods, and differential burial practices
  • Examples include the Khmer Empire (Cambodia), Srivijaya Empire (Indonesia), and Pagan Kingdom (Myanmar)
• Political organization the emergence of early states and empires with formalized systems of governance and control
  • Funan and Chenla (Cambodia) as early polities with a strong Indian influence, as reflected in their art and architecture
  • Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (Thailand) as powerful kingdoms that shaped the political and cultural landscape of mainland Southeast Asia
• Economic systems the production, exchange, and consumption of goods and services within and between societies
  • Subsistence strategies (hunting, gathering, fishing, and farming) and their impact on settlement patterns and social organization
  • Long-distance trade networks (maritime and overland) facilitating the exchange of raw materials, finished products, and ideas
• Religious beliefs and practices the role of religion in shaping social norms, values, and identities
  • Animism and ancestor worship as indigenous belief systems, often associated with megalithic traditions (jars, dolmens, and menhirs)
  • Hinduism and Buddhism as major world religions that spread to Southeast Asia through trade and cultural contact, leaving a lasting impact on art, architecture, and literature
• Warfare and conflict the prevalence of warfare and its impact on societal development and change
  • Fortifications (walls, moats, and ramparts) and weaponry (swords, spears, and projectile points) as evidence of inter-polity conflict and competition for resources
  • Angkor Wat originally constructed as a Hindu temple, later transformed into a Buddhist shrine, reflecting shifts in religious and political power
• Gender roles and relations the social construction of gender and its influence on labor division, status, and identity
  • Burial practices and grave goods (jewelry, textiles, and tools) indicating gender-based differences in wealth and status
  • Historical accounts and epigraphic evidence suggesting the presence of female rulers and religious leaders in some societies (Trưng Sisters in Vietnam and Queen Sima in Funan)

Preservation Challenges and Conservation Efforts

• Tropical climate high temperatures, humidity, and rainfall accelerating the decay of organic materials and metal artifacts
  • Waterlogged environments (bogs and rice paddies) can preserve organic remains (wood, textiles, and plant fibers) but pose challenges for excavation and conservation
  • Monsoon rains and flooding causing erosion and site disturbance, requiring protective measures (drainage systems and retaining walls)
• Looting and vandalism the illegal removal and destruction of archaeological sites and artifacts for profit or personal gain
  • Angkor Wat and other famous sites targeted by looters seeking valuable sculptures, ceramics, and precious metals
  • Community engagement and education programs to raise awareness of cultural heritage protection and discourage looting
• Development pressures the impact of modern infrastructure projects (dams, roads, and pipelines) and urban expansion on archaeological sites
  • Rescue excavations and salvage operations to document and preserve sites threatened by development
  • Heritage impact assessments and mitigation strategies to minimize damage and ensure sustainable development
• Tourism and visitor management the balance between public access, education, and site preservation
  • Angkor Wat and Borobudur as popular tourist destinations, requiring visitor management plans to prevent overcrowding and damage
  • Interpretive materials (signage, brochures, and guided tours) to enhance visitor understanding and appreciation of cultural heritage
• Conservation techniques the application of scientific methods to stabilize, repair, and protect archaeological materials
  • Stone conservation (cleaning, consolidation, and repair) to address weathering, salt damage, and structural instability
  • Metal conservation (desalination, corrosion removal, and protective coatings) to prevent further deterioration and preserve original surfaces
• International collaborations and partnerships the role of multinational organizations and research institutions in supporting conservation efforts
  • UNESCO World Heritage List recognizing sites of outstanding universal value and promoting their protection and management
  • Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) and its Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA) fostering regional cooperation and capacity building in cultural heritage preservation

Significance in Southeast Asian Archaeology

• Cultural diversity and interaction the rich tapestry of cultures and languages in Southeast Asia, reflecting a long history of migration, trade, and exchange
  • Austronesian expansion and the spread of farming, pottery, and navigational technologies from Taiwan to Island Southeast Asia and the Pacific
  • Indian and Chinese influences on religion, art, and statecraft, as evidenced by the adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism
• Regional chronologies and typologies the development of local and regional sequences based on changes in material culture and site types
  • Sa Huỳnh-Kalanay Pottery Tradition (c. 500 BCE-500 CE) characterized by stamped and incised designs, reflecting cultural connections between Vietnam, the Philippines, and Indonesia
  • Buni Complex (c. 400 BCE-100 CE) in northwest Java, known for its distinctive pottery forms and burial practices, providing insights into early Austronesian settlement
• Subsistence and environmental adaptations the ways in which past societies adapted to and modified their natural environments
  • Hoabinhian culture (c. 12,000-4,000 BCE) in mainland Southeast Asia, characterized by a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and the use of flaked stone tools
  • Development of rice agriculture and its impact on social complexity, population growth, and landscape transformation