🌊Ancient Mediterranean World Unit 2 – Early Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean

Key Civilizations and Timelines

• Ancient Egypt (c. 3100 BCE - 30 BCE) developed along the Nile River, known for its powerful pharaohs, complex religion, and iconic pyramids
  • Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BCE) marked by the construction of the Great Pyramids of Giza
  • New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BCE) saw the rule of famous pharaohs like Hatshepsut and Ramses II
• Mesopotamia (c. 3500 BCE - 539 BCE) flourished between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, home to Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians
  • Sumer (c. 3500-2334 BCE) known for the development of cuneiform writing and the Epic of Gilgamesh
  • Neo-Babylonian Empire (626-539 BCE) under Nebuchadnezzar II, responsible for the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
• Ancient Greece (c. 800 BCE - 146 BCE) encompassed city-states like Athens and Sparta, known for its art, philosophy, and democracy
  • Archaic Period (c. 800-480 BCE) marked by the rise of city-states and the development of Greek alphabet
  • Classical Period (480-323 BCE) saw the Golden Age of Athens and the conquests of Alexander the Great
• Roman Republic and Empire (c. 509 BCE - 476 CE) began in Italy and expanded to control the Mediterranean region
  • Roman Republic (509-27 BCE) known for its system of checks and balances and the Punic Wars against Carthage
  • Roman Empire (27 BCE - 476 CE) reached its height under emperors like Augustus and Trajan, known for its extensive road network and the Pax Romana
• Phoenicia (c. 1500 BCE - 539 BCE) was a maritime civilization centered in modern-day Lebanon, known for its purple dye, alphabet, and extensive trade networks
• Persian Empire (c. 550 BCE - 330 BCE) under the Achaemenid dynasty, stretched from the Indus Valley to Egypt and was known for its efficient administration and religious tolerance

Geography and Environmental Factors

• Nile River in Egypt provided fertile soil for agriculture through annual flooding and served as a transportation route
  • Cataracts along the Nile created natural boundaries and facilitated trade
  • Deserts surrounding the Nile Valley provided natural protection from invasions
• Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Mesopotamia supported irrigation and agriculture in an otherwise arid region
  • Unpredictable flooding and lack of natural barriers made Mesopotamia vulnerable to invasions
  • Access to the Persian Gulf facilitated maritime trade
• Mediterranean Sea served as a vital trade route and source of food for ancient civilizations
  • Greek city-states developed around natural harbors and relied on maritime trade
  • Roman Empire's control of the Mediterranean (Mare Nostrum) facilitated the spread of goods, people, and ideas
• Mountainous terrain in Greece led to the development of independent city-states (poleis) with distinct identities
  • Limited agricultural land encouraged the Greeks to establish colonies and engage in trade
• Levant region (modern-day Lebanon, Syria, and Israel) served as a land bridge between Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia
  • Phoenician city-states like Tyre and Sidon developed along the coast, facilitating maritime trade
• Diverse climates and landscapes within the Persian Empire necessitated efficient administration and infrastructure
  • Royal Road system connected the empire and facilitated communication and trade

Political Structures and Governance

• Pharaohs in Ancient Egypt were considered divine rulers with absolute power
  • Believed to be intermediaries between the gods and the people
  • Responsible for maintaining order (Ma'at) and ensuring the annual Nile flooding
• City-states in Mesopotamia were initially ruled by kings, but later developed into larger empires
  • Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BCE) established a set of laws based on the principle of "an eye for an eye"
  • Neo-Babylonian Empire known for its centralized administration and the Ishtar Gate
• Greek city-states experimented with various forms of government, including monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, and democracy
  • Athenian democracy (5th century BCE) allowed male citizens to participate directly in decision-making
  • Sparta was an oligarchy focused on military training and discipline
• Roman Republic had a complex system of checks and balances, with power shared among the Senate, Assembly, and magistrates
  • Cursus honorum, a series of political offices, ensured a rotation of power
  • Transition to the Roman Empire under Augustus (27 BCE) led to a more centralized form of government
• Phoenician city-states were ruled by kings and councils of wealthy merchants
  • Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos were among the most prominent Phoenician city-states
• Persian Empire had a centralized administration under the Achaemenid dynasty
  • Satrapies (provinces) were governed by satraps who reported to the king
  • Zoroastrianism served as the state religion, but the empire was known for its religious tolerance

Social Organization and Daily Life

• Ancient Egyptian society was hierarchical, with the pharaoh at the top, followed by nobles, priests, scribes, and commoners
  • Social mobility was possible through education and service to the state
  • Women had more rights compared to other ancient civilizations, could own property and initiate divorce
• Mesopotamian society was stratified, with kings, nobles, and priests at the top, followed by merchants, artisans, and farmers
  • Cuneiform writing was used for record-keeping and literature (Epic of Gilgamesh)
  • Ziggurats served as religious centers and symbols of city-state power
• Greek society was patriarchal, with men holding most of the power
  • Women's roles varied by city-state; Spartan women had more freedom than Athenian women
  • Education was important for upper-class males (philosophy, rhetoric, and athletics)
• Roman society was hierarchical, with patricians (upper class) and plebeians (lower class)
  • Family (familia) was the basic unit of society, with the father (paterfamilias) holding authority
  • Roman citizenship granted certain rights and privileges, and was gradually extended to conquered peoples
• Phoenician society was centered around maritime trade and commerce
  • Skilled artisans produced luxury goods like purple dye, glass, and metalwork
  • Phoenician alphabet was adapted by the Greeks and Romans, forming the basis for many modern alphabets
• Persian society was diverse, with various ethnic and religious groups
  • Zoroastrianism emphasized good thoughts, good words, and good deeds
  • Royal Road system facilitated communication and the spread of ideas throughout the empire

Economic Systems and Trade

• Ancient Egypt's economy was based on agriculture, with the Nile River providing fertile soil and a means of transportation
  • State-controlled redistribution of grain ensured food security
  • Trade with Nubia, the Levant, and the Mediterranean region included luxury goods like gold, incense, and cedar wood
• Mesopotamia's economy relied on agriculture and trade
  • Invention of the wheel and the sailboat facilitated overland and maritime trade
  • Cuneiform tablets record complex economic transactions and contracts
• Greek economy was based on agriculture, but the limited fertile land led to colonization and trade
  • Coined money (drachma) facilitated commerce and exchange
  • Athenian silver mines provided a source of wealth and financed the Athenian navy
• Roman economy was diverse, with agriculture, manufacturing, and trade playing significant roles
  • Roman roads (Via Appia) and aqueducts facilitated trade and urbanization
  • Roman currency (denarius) and a standardized system of weights and measures promoted commerce
• Phoenician economy was centered around maritime trade and the production of luxury goods
  • Established colonies (Carthage) and trading posts throughout the Mediterranean
  • Invented the bireme and trireme ships, which revolutionized maritime warfare and trade
• Persian economy was based on agriculture, pastoralism, and tribute from conquered territories
  • Royal Road system facilitated trade and communication throughout the empire
  • Persepolis, the ceremonial capital, showcased the empire's wealth and power

Cultural Achievements and Innovations

• Ancient Egyptians developed a complex writing system (hieroglyphs) and made advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine
  • Built monumental pyramids, temples (Karnak), and tombs (Valley of the Kings)
  • Created sophisticated art, including sculptures, wall paintings, and jewelry
• Mesopotamians invented the wheel, the sailboat, and the plow, revolutionizing transportation and agriculture
  • Developed cuneiform writing, one of the earliest writing systems
  • Made advancements in mathematics (base-60 system) and astronomy (zodiac)
• Greeks made significant contributions to art, architecture, literature, philosophy, and science
  • Classical Greek architecture (Parthenon) and sculpture (Myron's Discobolus) set standards for beauty and proportion
  • Greek theater (tragedies and comedies) explored complex themes and emotions
  • Greek philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) laid the foundations for Western thought
• Romans excelled in engineering, architecture, and law
  • Roman concrete revolutionized construction and enabled the building of large structures (Colosseum, Pantheon)
  • Roman law (Twelve Tables) and the concept of citizenship influenced modern legal systems
  • Latin language and literature (Virgil's Aeneid) had a lasting impact on Western culture
• Phoenicians developed the alphabet, which was adapted by the Greeks and Romans
  • Skilled artisans produced luxury goods like purple dye (Tyrian purple), glass, and metalwork
  • Phoenician ships and navigation skills facilitated long-distance trade and exploration
• Persians made advancements in architecture, art, and administration
  • Achaemenid palaces (Persepolis) showcased imperial power and wealth
  • Persian art (Cyrus Cylinder) reflected the empire's diversity and religious tolerance
  • Efficient administrative system (satrapies) and infrastructure (Royal Road) held the vast empire together

Religious Beliefs and Practices

• Ancient Egyptian religion was polytheistic, with a complex pantheon of gods and goddesses
  • Believed in the afterlife and the importance of proper burial rituals (mummification)
  • Pharaohs were considered divine intermediaries between the gods and the people
  • Temples served as centers of worship and ritual (Karnak, Luxor)
• Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with each city-state having its own patron deity
  • Believed in the power of divination and the interpretation of omens
  • Ziggurats served as religious centers and symbols of city-state power
  • Epic of Gilgamesh explores themes of mortality, friendship, and the search for immortality
• Greek religion was polytheistic, with gods and goddesses representing various aspects of nature and human life
  • Mythology (Homeric Hymns) played a central role in religious beliefs and practices
  • Oracles (Delphi) and religious festivals (Olympic Games) were important aspects of religious life
  • Mystery cults (Eleusinian Mysteries) offered initiates the promise of a better afterlife
• Roman religion was originally polytheistic, with gods and goddesses adapted from Greek and Etruscan pantheons
  • State religion focused on proper ritual and sacrifice to maintain the pax deorum (peace of the gods)
  • Imperial cult deified emperors and their families
  • Rise of Christianity in the later empire led to the gradual decline of traditional Roman religion
• Phoenician religion was polytheistic, with gods and goddesses associated with various aspects of nature and human activity
  • Baal and Melqart were important male deities, while Astarte and Tanit were prominent female deities
  • Child sacrifice may have been practiced in times of crisis or to appease the gods
• Persian religion was dominated by Zoroastrianism, which emphasized the cosmic struggle between good and evil
  • Ahura Mazda was the supreme god, with Angra Mainyu as his evil adversary
  • Fire temples served as places of worship and ritual
  • Achaemenid kings depicted themselves as divinely appointed rulers and protectors of the Zoroastrian faith

Legacy and Historical Significance

• Ancient Egypt's legacy includes its art, architecture, and religious beliefs
  • Hieroglyphic writing system deciphered by Jean-François Champollion using the Rosetta Stone
  • Egyptian art and architecture influenced later cultures (Ptolemaic Egypt, Roman Egypt)
  • Fascination with ancient Egypt in modern times (Egyptology, popular culture)
• Mesopotamia's legacy includes the development of writing, cities, and legal codes
  • Cuneiform writing system deciphered in the 19th century, opening up Mesopotamian history and literature
  • Hammurabi's Code influenced later legal systems and the concept of written law
  • Mesopotamian mythology and literature (Epic of Gilgamesh) continue to captivate modern audiences
• Greek culture and ideas have had a profound impact on Western civilization
  • Greek philosophy, literature, and art influenced later European culture (Renaissance, Neoclassicism)
  • Greek democracy and political thought inspired modern democratic systems
  • Greek language and alphabet formed the basis for scientific and technical terminology
• Roman legacy includes its language, law, engineering, and architecture
  • Latin language evolved into the Romance languages (French, Italian, Spanish)
  • Roman law and the concept of citizenship influenced modern legal systems
  • Roman engineering and architecture (arches, domes, aqueducts) continue to inspire modern builders
• Phoenician legacy includes the development of the alphabet and maritime trade
  • Phoenician alphabet adapted by the Greeks and Romans, forming the basis for many modern alphabets
  • Phoenician trade networks and colonies (Carthage) facilitated cultural exchange in the ancient Mediterranean
  • Phoenician purple dye and glassmaking techniques were highly prized in the ancient world
• Persian legacy includes its efficient administration, infrastructure, and religious tolerance
  • Achaemenid administrative system (satrapies) influenced later empires (Seleucid, Parthian)
  • Royal Road system served as a model for later communication and transportation networks
  • Zoroastrianism influenced later religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) and philosophical traditions (Manichaeism)