psyc 210 developmental psychology unit 5 study guides

Key Concepts and Theories

• Piaget's cognitive development theory proposes that infants and toddlers progress through the sensorimotor stage, which involves learning through senses and motor actions
  • Substages include simple reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of reactions, tertiary circular reactions, and early representational thought
• Erikson's psychosocial development theory suggests that infants face the crisis of trust vs. mistrust, while toddlers encounter autonomy vs. shame and doubt
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interactions and cultural context in cognitive development, with the concept of the zone of proximal development
• Bowlby's attachment theory highlights the importance of a secure attachment between infants and their primary caregivers for healthy social and emotional development
• Bandura's social learning theory proposes that infants and toddlers learn through observation, imitation, and modeling of others' behaviors
• Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory considers the influence of various environmental systems on a child's development, from the microsystem to the macrosystem
• The nature vs. nurture debate explores the relative contributions of genetic factors and environmental experiences to child development

Physical Development

• Rapid growth occurs in the first two years of life, with infants doubling their birth weight by 4-6 months and tripling it by one year
• Gross motor skills develop in a cephalocaudal (head-to-toe) and proximodistal (center-to-periphery) pattern
  • Milestones include rolling over (3-5 months), sitting unsupported (6-8 months), crawling (7-10 months), and walking (10-18 months)
• Fine motor skills involve the coordination of small muscle movements, particularly in the hands and fingers
  • Milestones include grasping objects (3-4 months), transferring objects between hands (5-7 months), and using a pincer grasp (8-12 months)
• Sensory development is crucial for infants to explore and learn about their environment
  • Vision improves rapidly, with infants showing preferences for faces and high-contrast patterns
  • Hearing is well-developed at birth, with infants responding to familiar voices and sounds
• Brain development is rapid during infancy, with the formation of neural connections and the growth of synapses
• Nutrition plays a vital role in physical growth and development, with breast milk or formula providing essential nutrients
• Sleep patterns change over time, with newborns sleeping up to 17 hours a day and gradually developing more regular sleep-wake cycles

Cognitive Development

• Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, typically developed by 8-12 months
• Cause-and-effect relationships are learned through exploration and experimentation, with infants and toddlers beginning to understand that their actions can produce specific outcomes
• Symbolic thought emerges during the second year, allowing toddlers to use mental representations, such as words or gestures, to refer to objects or events
• Imitation is an important learning mechanism, with infants and toddlers copying the actions and behaviors of others
• Memory develops gradually, with recognition memory emerging earlier than recall memory
  • Infants show recognition of familiar faces and objects by 3-4 months
  • Toddlers begin to exhibit rudimentary recall memory, such as remembering the location of a hidden toy
• Problem-solving skills improve as infants and toddlers learn to use trial-and-error and other strategies to achieve their goals
• Concept formation involves categorizing objects and events based on shared characteristics, such as shape, color, or function

Language Acquisition

• Prelinguistic communication includes crying, cooing, and babbling, which lay the foundation for language development
• Receptive language, or the ability to understand words and phrases, typically develops before expressive language, or the ability to produce words and phrases
• First words usually emerge around 12 months, with toddlers rapidly expanding their vocabulary to 50-100 words by 18 months
• Two-word combinations, or telegraphic speech, appear around 18-24 months, allowing toddlers to express simple ideas and relationships
• Overextension occurs when a child uses a word to refer to a broader category than its actual meaning (e.g., calling all four-legged animals "doggie")
• Underextension happens when a child uses a word to refer to a narrower category than its actual meaning (e.g., using "ball" only for their specific toy ball)
• Language development is influenced by factors such as exposure to language, quality of caregiver-child interactions, and individual differences in cognitive abilities

Social and Emotional Growth

• Self-awareness develops gradually, with infants beginning to recognize themselves in mirrors by 18-24 months
• Emotions become more complex and differentiated over time, with toddlers expressing a wider range of emotions such as pride, shame, and empathy
• Self-regulation, or the ability to manage one's emotions and behaviors, improves as toddlers learn strategies such as self-soothing and distraction
• Social referencing involves looking to others for cues on how to respond in uncertain or ambiguous situations
• Stranger anxiety, or wariness around unfamiliar people, typically emerges around 6-8 months and peaks at 12-15 months
• Separation anxiety, or distress when separated from primary caregivers, is common between 8-18 months and reflects the development of attachment
• Play becomes more social and cooperative, with toddlers engaging in parallel play (playing alongside others) and beginning to show interest in interactive play

Attachment and Relationships

• Attachment is the strong emotional bond between infants and their primary caregivers, providing a sense of security and a foundation for healthy social and emotional development
• Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure identified three main attachment styles: secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant
  • Secure attachment is characterized by distress upon separation, seeking comfort from the caregiver, and successful soothing
  • Insecure-avoidant attachment involves little distress upon separation and avoidance of the caregiver upon reunion
  • Insecure-resistant attachment is marked by intense distress upon separation and difficulty being soothed by the caregiver
• Attachment security is influenced by factors such as caregiver sensitivity, responsiveness, and consistency
• Internal working models are mental representations of relationships that guide expectations and behaviors in future interactions
• The quality of early attachments can have long-lasting effects on social and emotional functioning, with secure attachments promoting better outcomes
• Relationships with other family members, such as fathers, siblings, and grandparents, also play important roles in social and emotional development

Milestones and Developmental Stages

• Developmental milestones are key skills or abilities that most children achieve within a specific age range, serving as markers of typical development
• Milestones can be categorized into domains such as physical, cognitive, language, and social-emotional development
• Examples of physical milestones include rolling over, sitting unsupported, crawling, and walking
• Cognitive milestones involve the development of object permanence, cause-and-effect understanding, and symbolic thought
• Language milestones include babbling, first words, and two-word combinations
• Social-emotional milestones encompass the emergence of self-awareness, complex emotions, and attachment behaviors
• While milestones provide a general framework for tracking development, it is important to recognize individual variations in the timing and sequence of skill acquisition
• Developmental delays or deviations from typical milestones may warrant further evaluation and intervention to support the child's growth and well-being

Environmental Influences and Parenting

• The home environment, including the physical space, resources, and emotional climate, can significantly impact a child's development
• Parenting styles, such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved, influence child outcomes in areas like self-regulation, social competence, and academic achievement
  • Authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth, responsiveness, and clear expectations, is associated with the most positive developmental outcomes
• Parent-child interactions, such as responsive caregiving, joint attention, and scaffolding, promote cognitive, language, and social-emotional growth
• The quality and quantity of language input from caregivers affect language development, with rich and varied exposure fostering better outcomes
• Socioeconomic status can impact access to resources, experiences, and opportunities that support optimal development
• Cultural values, beliefs, and practices shape parenting behaviors and expectations, leading to variations in developmental trajectories across different contexts
• Adverse childhood experiences, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, can have negative long-term effects on physical and mental health
• Protective factors, such as supportive relationships, community resources, and individual resilience, can buffer the impact of environmental stressors on child development