Native American Art and Culture Unit 10 ReviewNative American Activism and Resistance

Historical Context

• Native American activism and resistance have deep roots in the history of colonization, forced relocation, and cultural suppression
• Early forms of resistance included armed conflicts (Pueblo Revolt of 1680) and diplomatic negotiations to protect tribal sovereignty and land rights
• Assimilation policies (boarding schools, allotment) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries aimed to erase Native cultures and identities, sparking further resistance
• The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 marked a shift in federal policy, promoting tribal self-governance and cultural preservation
  • Reversed allotment policies and restored some tribal lands
  • Encouraged the development of tribal constitutions and governments
• Post-World War II era saw increased urbanization of Native Americans, leading to the formation of pan-tribal organizations and activism
• The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s inspired a new wave of Native American activism focused on self-determination, treaty rights, and cultural revitalization

Key Figures and Leaders

• Vine Deloria Jr., Standing Rock Sioux author and activist, wrote influential books (Custer Died for Your Sins) challenging stereotypes and advocating for Native rights
• Dennis Banks and Clyde Bellecourt, Ojibwe co-founders of the American Indian Movement (AIM), led protests and occupations to draw attention to Native issues
• Russell Means, Oglala Lakota activist, and AIM leader, participated in the occupation of Wounded Knee and became a prominent spokesperson for Native rights
• Wilma Mankiller, first female Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, worked to improve healthcare, education, and infrastructure in her community
  • Promoted self-determination and economic development
  • Recognized nationally for her leadership and advocacy
• LaDonna Harris, Comanche activist, founded Americans for Indian Opportunity to support Native leadership and policy initiatives
• Mary Brave Bird (Crow Dog), Sicangu Lakota writer and activist, participated in AIM and wrote memoirs (Lakota Woman) about her experiences

Major Movements and Events

• The Occupation of Alcatraz (1969-1971) by Native American activists brought attention to treaty rights and the need for cultural preservation
  • Demanded the return of the island to Native control under the Treaty of Fort Laramie
  • Inspired a wave of similar occupations and protests across the country
• The Trail of Broken Treaties (1972) was a cross-country protest march culminating in the occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C.
  • Presented a 20-point position paper outlining demands for self-determination and treaty rights
• Wounded Knee Occupation (1973) on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota protested corruption and called for the recognition of treaty rights
  • 71-day standoff between AIM activists and federal authorities
  • Drew international attention to Native American struggles
• The Longest Walk (1978) was a spiritual walk from San Francisco to Washington, D.C. to protest legislation threatening Native sovereignty and land rights
• The Indigenous Environmental Network, formed in 1990, works to protect Native lands and resources from exploitation and contamination
  • Advocates for environmental justice and sustainable development
  • Collaborates with Indigenous communities worldwide

Artistic Expressions of Resistance

• Native American artists have used various mediums to express resistance, preserve cultural traditions, and challenge stereotypes
• Visual arts, such as painting (Fritz Scholder), sculpture (Edgar Heap of Birds), and photography (Hulleah Tsinhnahjinnie), often address political and social issues
  • Scholder's "Indian Series" challenged romanticized images of Native Americans
  • Heap of Birds' installations critique historical and ongoing injustices
• Literature, including poetry (Joy Harjo), fiction (Leslie Marmon Silko), and non-fiction (Vine Deloria Jr.), gives voice to Native experiences and perspectives
  • Harjo's poetry explores themes of survival, identity, and resistance
  • Silko's novels (Ceremony) address the impact of colonization and cultural erasure
• Music, such as the work of Buffy Sainte-Marie and John Trudell, often carries messages of protest and cultural pride
  • Sainte-Marie's songs (Universal Soldier) critique war and social injustice
  • Trudell's spoken word performances combine poetry and activism
• Film and television, including documentaries (Incident at Oglala) and feature films (Smoke Signals), showcase Native stories and issues
  • Incident at Oglala examines the controversial case of Leonard Peltier and the AIM
  • Smoke Signals, written and directed by Native filmmakers, explores themes of identity and healing

Legal and Political Strategies

• Native American activists have utilized legal and political channels to protect tribal sovereignty, land rights, and cultural heritage
• Treaty rights have been a central focus, with tribes asserting their rights to land, resources, and self-governance as outlined in historical treaties
  • The Boldt Decision (1974) upheld the fishing rights of Washington state tribes under the Treaties of Point Elliott and Point No Point
  • The McGirt v. Oklahoma decision (2020) affirmed the Muscogee (Creek) Nation's reservation boundaries and jurisdiction
• Legislation, such as the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990), has been passed to support tribal autonomy and cultural preservation
  • The Indian Self-Determination Act allows tribes to contract with the federal government to manage their own programs and services
  • NAGPRA requires federal agencies and institutions to return Native American cultural items and remains to their respective tribes
• Political organizing and lobbying efforts have been used to influence policy and raise awareness of Native issues
  • The National Congress of American Indians, founded in 1944, advocates for tribal sovereignty and works to shape federal policy
  • The Indigenous Peoples Caucus, formed in 2001, coordinates Indigenous participation in United Nations forums and processes
• Litigation has been employed to protect Native rights and challenge discriminatory policies
  • The Native American Rights Fund, founded in 1970, provides legal assistance to tribes and individuals in cases related to treaty rights, land claims, and civil rights

Cultural Preservation Efforts

• Native American communities have engaged in various efforts to preserve and revitalize their cultural traditions in the face of assimilation and erasure
• Language revitalization programs aim to teach and maintain Indigenous languages through immersion schools, classes, and resources
  • The Navajo Nation's Diné College offers Navajo language courses and degrees
  • The Hawai'i State Department of Education has established Hawaiian language immersion schools
• Traditional knowledge and practices, such as agriculture, medicine, and crafts, are being documented and passed on to younger generations
  • The Indigenous Seed Keepers Network promotes the preservation and exchange of traditional seeds and agricultural practices
  • The Alaska Native Knowledge Network collects and shares Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing
• Cultural centers and museums, often tribally-run, serve to educate the public and celebrate Native cultures
  • The National Museum of the American Indian, with locations in Washington, D.C. and New York City, showcases the diversity and vitality of Native cultures
  • The Oneida Nation Museum in Wisconsin preserves and interprets Oneida history and culture
• Repatriation efforts seek to return sacred objects, ancestral remains, and cultural patrimony to their rightful Native communities
  • The National Park Service has repatriated over 1,500 cultural items to tribes under NAGPRA
  • The Field Museum in Chicago has returned sacred objects and remains to several Native communities

Contemporary Issues and Ongoing Struggles

• Despite progress made through activism and resistance, Native American communities continue to face numerous challenges and ongoing struggles
• Environmental justice issues, such as the impact of resource extraction and pollution on Native lands and health, remain a pressing concern
  • The Dakota Access Pipeline protests at Standing Rock in 2016-2017 brought attention to the threat of oil spills and the violation of treaty rights
  • The Bears Ears National Monument in Utah, designated to protect sacred sites and cultural resources, has been the subject of ongoing legal battles and political controversy
• Disparities in health, education, and economic opportunities persist in many Native communities, rooted in a legacy of colonization and discrimination
  • Native Americans have disproportionately high rates of poverty, unemployment, and health issues (diabetes, substance abuse)
  • The COVID-19 pandemic has had a severe impact on Native communities, exacerbating existing inequalities and highlighting the need for improved healthcare and resources
• Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (MMIW) is a crisis affecting Native communities across North America, with high rates of violence and a lack of adequate response from law enforcement
  • The MMIW movement seeks to raise awareness, demand justice, and address the root causes of violence against Indigenous women and girls
• Cultural appropriation and misrepresentation of Native cultures in popular media and consumer products remain ongoing issues
  • Native activists have called for the removal of offensive mascots and team names (Washington Redskins) and the protection of sacred symbols and designs from appropriation

Impact and Legacy

• The impact and legacy of Native American activism and resistance can be seen in the increased visibility and recognition of Native rights, cultures, and perspectives
• Legal victories and policy changes have affirmed tribal sovereignty, protected land and resource rights, and promoted self-determination
  • The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988) has enabled tribes to establish casinos and generate revenue for economic development and social services
  • The reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act in 2013 included provisions to address violence against Native women and expand tribal jurisdiction
• Cultural revitalization efforts have led to a resurgence of Native languages, traditional practices, and artistic expressions
  • The number of Native language immersion programs and speakers has increased in recent decades
  • Native artists, writers, and filmmakers have gained greater mainstream recognition and opportunities to share their stories and perspectives
• Increased representation and participation of Native Americans in politics, academia, and public discourse have amplified Native voices and concerns
  • The election of Deb Haaland (Laguna Pueblo) as the first Native American Cabinet secretary (U.S. Department of the Interior) in 2021 was a historic milestone
  • Native scholars and activists have challenged dominant narratives and advocated for the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge and methodologies in various fields
• The legacy of Native American activism and resistance continues to inspire and inform contemporary movements for social justice and Indigenous rights worldwide
  • The Idle No More movement, which began in Canada in 2012, has sparked solidarity actions and raised awareness of Indigenous issues globally
  • The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted in 2007, sets international standards for the protection and promotion of Indigenous rights