📚Middle English Literature Unit 11 – Middle English Romance: Sir Orfeo & King Horn

Historical Context

• Middle English romance developed during the 12th to 15th centuries, reflecting the social, cultural, and political changes of the time
• The genre emerged in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest (1066), which introduced French language and literature to England
• Romances were influenced by earlier Anglo-Saxon literature, as well as French and Celtic traditions
• The rise of courtly love and chivalric ideals shaped the themes and values portrayed in Middle English romances
• Romances were popular among the nobility and the growing middle class, reflecting their aspirations and interests
• The Crusades and increased contact with the East influenced the settings and characters of some romances (exotic lands, Saracens)
• The popularity of romances coincided with the growth of literacy and the development of vernacular literature in English
• Romances were often performed orally by minstrels and later circulated in manuscript form among the literate elite

Key Texts and Authors

• Sir Orfeo is a Middle English romance based on the classical myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, with significant adaptations
  • The poem survives in three manuscripts: Auchinleck (c. 1330), Harley 3810 (c. 1450), and Ashmole 61 (c. 1500)
  • The author of Sir Orfeo is unknown, as is common with many Middle English romances
• King Horn is an early Middle English romance (c. 1225) that tells the story of Horn, a prince who is exiled and must regain his throne
  • The poem is preserved in three manuscripts: Cambridge University Library MS Gg.4.27.2, Bodleian Library MS Laud Misc. 108, and British Library MS Harley 2253
  • Like Sir Orfeo, the author of King Horn is unknown
• Other notable Middle English romances include Havelok the Dane, Bevis of Hampton, and Floris and Blancheflour
• Some romances, such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Chaucer's The Knight's Tale, are attributed to known authors (Pearl Poet, Geoffrey Chaucer)
• Many Middle English romances are adaptations or translations of French originals, such as Chrétien de Troyes' Arthurian romances

Themes and Motifs

• Love and loyalty are central themes in Middle English romances, often tested through separation, exile, or quests
  • In Sir Orfeo, the protagonist's love for his wife Heurodis drives him to enter the fairy realm and win her back through his musical skill
  • King Horn features the hero's unwavering loyalty to his betrothed, Rymenhild, despite years of separation and obstacles
• Chivalry and knightly virtues are celebrated in romances, with heroes embodying courage, honor, and prowess in battle
• The supernatural and marvelous are common elements, featuring magical objects, talking animals, and otherworldly beings (fairies in Sir Orfeo)
• Disguise and identity play a significant role in many romances, with characters adopting new identities or being recognized after long absences (Horn's disguise as a pilgrim)
• Exile and return is a recurring narrative pattern, with heroes forced to leave their homes and later reclaiming their rightful positions (Horn's exile and return to Westernesse)
• The court and the wilderness serve as contrasting settings, representing civilization and the unknown, respectively
• Dreams and visions often provide guidance, warnings, or revelations to the characters (Heurodis' dream of the fairy king in Sir Orfeo)

Literary Techniques

• Middle English romances employ a variety of poetic forms, including tail-rhyme stanzas (Sir Orfeo) and couplets (King Horn)
  • Tail-rhyme stanzas consist of long lines with internal rhyme, followed by a shorter line with end rhyme (e.g., "In Inglond an heize lording, / A stalworth man and hardi bo; / He had a quen of priis, / Þat was ycleped Dame Heurodis")
  • Couplets feature pairs of rhyming lines with a regular meter (e.g., "Murry, þe kinge of Suddenne, / Ofte he gon to þe wode go")
• Formulaic language and stock phrases are used to aid oral performance and memorization (e.g., "Listneþ, lordinges," "Forþ he wente in þat tide")
• Repetition and parallelism create emphasis and structure, particularly in emotional or dramatic scenes (Horn's repeated returns to Rymenhild)
• Foreshadowing and prophecy build anticipation and hint at future events (Heurodis' dream foreshadowing her abduction)
• Symbolism and allegory imbue objects, characters, and events with deeper meanings (Orfeo's harp as a symbol of his artistic power and love)
• Rhetorical devices, such as apostrophe and hyperbole, heighten the emotional intensity and engagement with the audience

Language and Style

• Middle English romances are written in the vernacular, reflecting the language spoken in England from the 12th to the 15th centuries
  • The language varies depending on the region and time period, with dialects such as West Midlands (Sir Orfeo) and South East Midlands (King Horn)
  • Middle English features a mix of Old English, French, and Norse influences, with a less inflected grammar compared to Old English
• The style of Middle English romances is characterized by a blend of oral and written traditions
  • Oral formulas, repetition, and direct address to the audience reflect the poems' roots in oral performance
  • Written features, such as complex syntax, rhetorical devices, and intertextual references, demonstrate the increasing influence of literacy and education
• The language is often vivid and descriptive, using sensory details and figurative language to create a rich and immersive experience for the audience
• Dialogue and direct speech are used to reveal character, advance the plot, and engage the audience emotionally
• The tone of Middle English romances ranges from serious and tragic to lighthearted and humorous, depending on the subject matter and intended effect

Cultural Significance

• Middle English romances reflect the values, beliefs, and aspirations of medieval English society
  • The ideals of courtly love, chivalry, and feudal loyalty are celebrated and reinforced through the characters and their actions
  • The poems provide insight into the social hierarchy, gender roles, and religious beliefs of the time
• Romances played a role in shaping national identity and cultural memory, by adapting and transforming earlier legends and histories
  • The Anglicization of French and classical sources (e.g., Sir Orfeo's adaptation of the Orpheus myth) reflects the process of cultural appropriation and synthesis
  • The use of English as the language of literary expression contributed to the development of a distinct English literary tradition
• The popularity of romances among different social classes suggests their broad appeal and potential for social commentary and critique
  • The poems could serve as a means of escape, wish-fulfillment, or moral instruction for their audiences
• Middle English romances influenced later literary works and genres, such as the Elizabethan romance epic (e.g., Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene) and the modern fantasy novel
• The study of Middle English romances provides valuable insights into the cultural, linguistic, and literary history of medieval England

Comparative Analysis

• Sir Orfeo and King Horn can be compared in terms of their themes, structures, and cultural contexts
  • Both poems feature the motifs of exile and return, testing the protagonist's love and loyalty
  • However, Sir Orfeo focuses on the supernatural and the power of art, while King Horn emphasizes chivalry and political intrigue
• Comparing Middle English romances to their French and Anglo-Norman sources reveals the processes of adaptation and cultural translation
  • Sir Orfeo's transformation of the classical Orpheus myth reflects the influence of Celtic folklore and the values of courtly love
  • The differences between King Horn and its Anglo-Norman source, Romance of Horn, illustrate the changing tastes and expectations of the English audience
• Analyzing the variations between different manuscripts of the same romance can provide insights into the transmission and reception of these texts
  • The three manuscripts of Sir Orfeo, spanning two centuries, show how the poem was adapted and interpreted by different scribes and audiences
• Comparing romances to other genres, such as chronicles, lais, and saints' lives, highlights the distinctive features and functions of the romance genre
  • The fantastical elements and focus on individual heroism in romances contrast with the historical claims and religious themes of chronicles and saints' lives
• Tracing the influence of Middle English romances on later works, such as Chaucer's The Knight's Tale or Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, demonstrates their lasting impact on English literature

Modern Interpretations

• Modern scholars have approached Middle English romances from various critical perspectives, offering new insights and interpretations
  • Feminist readings have examined the representation of gender roles and female agency in romances like Sir Orfeo and King Horn
  • Postcolonial studies have explored the depiction of cultural and religious others, such as the Saracens in King Horn, and the implications of cultural appropriation
• Psychoanalytic interpretations have delved into the symbolic and psychological dimensions of the poems, such as the significance of dreams and the hero's journey
• Ecocritical approaches have considered the representation of nature and the environment in romances, particularly the forest setting in Sir Orfeo
• Performance studies have investigated the oral and performative aspects of romances, reconstructing their potential staging and reception
• Digital humanities projects have used computational tools to analyze the language, style, and transmission of Middle English romances
  • The Digital Index of Middle English Verse (DIMEV) provides a comprehensive database of Middle English poetry, facilitating comparative and quantitative studies
• Modern adaptations and retellings of Middle English romances have brought these stories to new audiences and contexts
  • Novels like Madeline Miller's Galatea (2013) and Naomi Novik's Spinning Silver (2018) draw on the themes and motifs of Sir Orfeo and other medieval romances
  • Films and television series, such as First Knight (1995) and Game of Thrones (2011-2019), have popularized the genre and its conventions for modern viewers
• The ongoing study and interpretation of Middle English romances testify to their enduring appeal and relevance, as well as their capacity to generate new meanings and perspectives