📚Middle English Literature Unit 1 – Middle English: History and Language

Historical Context

• Middle English developed after the Norman Conquest of 1066 brought French influence to the English language
• Spans roughly from the late 11th century to the late 15th century
• Characterized by significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation compared to Old English
• Influenced by the political, social, and cultural shifts of the period (Norman rule, Hundred Years' War, Black Death)
• Saw the rise of vernacular literature and the decline of Latin as the primary language of written works
• Witnessed the emergence of a more standardized written language by the end of the period (Chancery Standard)
• Coincided with the growth of trade, urbanization, and the rise of the middle class

Origins of Middle English

• Developed from Old English following the Norman Conquest of 1066
• Heavily influenced by Norman French, which became the language of the ruling class
• Old Norse, spoken by Viking settlers, also contributed to the development of Middle English
• Gradual simplification of inflectional endings and loss of grammatical gender
• Incorporation of French vocabulary, particularly in areas such as government, law, fashion, and cuisine (parliament, justice, gown, beef)
• Emergence of a more analytical language structure, relying on word order and prepositions rather than inflections
• Coexistence of Old English and Norman French led to a period of diglossia

Key Linguistic Features

• Loss of inflectional endings and grammatical gender
• Increased use of prepositions and a more fixed word order (Subject-Verb-Object)
• Simplification of the noun case system
• Adoption of French vocabulary, particularly in areas influenced by Norman rule (government, law, art, fashion)
• Emergence of a more analytical language structure
• Vowel shifts, such as the lengthening of vowels in open syllables and the shortening of vowels in closed syllables
• Development of the "th" sound (þ and ð) and the "sh" sound (sc)
• Increased use of auxiliary verbs and periphrastic constructions

Dialects and Regional Variations

• Five major dialects: Northern, West Midlands, East Midlands, Southern, and Kentish
• Northern dialect characterized by retention of Old English features and influence from Old Norse (use of "they," "their," "them")
• Southern dialect more conservative, retaining some Old English features
• East Midlands dialect, particularly the London dialect, became the basis for standard English
• West Midlands dialect known for its distinctive vocabulary and grammar
• Regional variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar
  • Northern dialect used "kirk" for "church," while Southern dialect used "chirche"
  • West Midlands dialect used "hem" for "them"
• Differences in spelling conventions across regions

Influential Texts and Authors

• Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales" (late 14th century) showcases a wide range of Middle English dialects and styles
• "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" (late 14th century), an alliterative poem demonstrating the West Midlands dialect
• "Piers Plowman" by William Langland (late 14th century), a religious allegory written in the West Midlands dialect
• "The Pearl Poet," an anonymous author of "Pearl," "Patience," "Cleanness," and "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight"
• Wycliffe's Bible (late 14th century), an early English translation that contributed to the standardization of English
• "The Book of Margery Kempe" (early 15th century), the first known autobiographical work in English
• "Le Morte d'Arthur" by Sir Thomas Malory (late 15th century), a compilation of Arthurian legends

Spelling and Pronunciation

• Inconsistent spelling due to lack of standardization and regional variations
• Scribes often spelled words based on their pronunciation, leading to multiple spellings for the same word
• Vowel shifts, such as the lengthening of vowels in open syllables and the shortening of vowels in closed syllables
• Development of silent letters (e.g., "knight," "gnat")
• Pronunciation of final "-e" in words like "name" and "nose"
• Use of "þ" (thorn) and "ð" (eth) for the "th" sound, gradually replaced by "th" digraph
• "c" often used to represent both /k/ and /s/ sounds (e.g., "cat," "city")
• "u" and "v" used interchangeably (e.g., "loue" for "love")

Grammar and Syntax

• Gradual loss of inflectional endings and grammatical gender
• Simplification of the noun case system
  • Old English had four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative), while Middle English reduced to two (nominative and genitive)
• Increased use of prepositions to indicate relationships between words
• Emergence of a more fixed word order (Subject-Verb-Object)
• Development of auxiliary verbs and periphrastic constructions
  • Increased use of "do" as an auxiliary verb (e.g., "He did not go")
• Expansion of the present participle ("-ing") and past participle ("-ed") forms
• Simplification of adjective inflections
• Emergence of the plural marker "-s" for nouns

Impact on Modern English

• Middle English forms the basis for Modern English
• Many Middle English words are still used in Modern English (e.g., "love," "house," "friend")
• French loanwords from the Middle English period remain a significant part of the English vocabulary (e.g., "government," "justice," "beauty")
• The Great Vowel Shift (15th-18th centuries) marked a major change in pronunciation from Middle to Modern English
• Standardization of spelling and grammar began in the Middle English period and continued into the Early Modern period
• Works from the Middle English period, such as Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales," continue to be studied and admired
• Middle English provides insight into the development of English as a global language
• Understanding Middle English helps in the study of English etymology and linguistic history