Types of Roman Coins

Why This Matters

Roman coins are far more than ancient money—they're primary archaeological sources that reveal how emperors communicated with millions of subjects, how economic policies succeeded or failed, and how trade networks connected distant provinces. When you excavate a site and find coins, you're recovering evidence of chronology, trade patterns, economic status, and political messaging all in one artifact. The metal composition, weight standards, and iconographic choices tell stories that literary sources often miss or distort.

You're being tested on your ability to read coins as historical documents: understanding what debasement reveals about fiscal crisis, how denominational systems structured daily commerce, and why emperors invested heavily in coin imagery as propaganda. Don't just memorize which coin was gold or silver—know what each denomination tells us about Roman society and how archaeologists use numismatic evidence to date sites and interpret economic conditions.

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High-Value Precious Metal Coins

Gold and silver coins represented stored wealth and large-scale transactions. Their consistent weight standards made them trusted across the Mediterranean, while their imagery carried imperial messages to elite audiences.

Aureus (Gold)

• Standard gold coin of the Empire—weighed approximately 8 grams and equaled 25 denarii, establishing the anchor for the entire monetary system
• Elite circulation meant these rarely entered everyday commerce; found archaeologically in hoards and military contexts rather than market sites
• Imperial portraiture on aurei set the standard for how emperors wished to be seen, making them crucial for studying political iconography and propaganda

Solidus (Gold)

• Constantine I's reformed gold standard (4th century AD)—lighter at 4.5 grams but remarkably stable for centuries
• Replaced the aureus and became the foundation of Byzantine currency, demonstrating successful monetary reform
• Christian iconography appears on later examples, reflecting the empire's religious transformation—key evidence for ideological shifts in late antiquity

Denarius (Silver)

• Backbone of Roman currency from 211 BC through the 3rd century AD, making it the most archaeologically common silver coin
• Weight of approximately 4 grams remained relatively stable for centuries, though silver content declined during crises
• Historical record in miniature—depicted military victories, building projects, and political events, serving as dated propaganda useful for establishing archaeological chronologies

Siliqua (Silver)

• Late Roman silver denomination—valued at 1/24 of a solidus, filling the gap between gold and bronze
• Christian and imperial imagery reflects the transformed religious landscape of the 4th-5th centuries
• Provincial circulation patterns help archaeologists trace late antique trade networks and economic connections

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Base Metal Coinage for Daily Commerce

Bronze, brass, and copper coins handled the small transactions that made up most economic activity. Their relative abundance in archaeological contexts makes them invaluable for dating occupation layers and understanding local economies.

Sestertius (Brass)

• Largest and most visually impressive base metal coin—its size allowed for elaborate relief designs and detailed imagery
• Worth 1/4 denarius, making it practical for substantial everyday purchases while remaining accessible
• Prime propaganda medium during the Imperial period; large surface area permitted complex scenes commemorating buildings, victories, and imperial virtues

Dupondius (Brass)

• Worth two asses—distinguished from the similar-sized as by its brass composition and radiate crown on imperial portraits
• Mid-value workhorse of daily commerce, bridging the gap between tiny copper fractions and larger sestertii
• Radiate crown convention helps archaeologists quickly identify denomination even on worn specimens—important for numismatic analysis in the field

As (Copper)

• Fundamental unit of the Roman denominational system—1/16 of a denarius in the Imperial period
• Ubiquitous in excavations of markets, shops, and domestic contexts, reflecting its role in everyday transactions
• Simpler iconography than larger denominations, typically featuring deities or imperial portraits without elaborate scenes

Quadrans (Copper)

• Smallest practical denomination—worth 1/4 as, used for the most minor purchases
• Archaeological significance lies in its presence indicating active local commerce at modest economic levels
• Minimal propaganda value due to size, but still carried standardized imagery connecting users to Roman authority

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Crisis and Debasement Coinage

When the Roman state faced fiscal pressure, it manipulated coinage—reducing precious metal content or introducing new denominations. These debased coins are archaeological markers of economic instability and political crisis.

Antoninianus (Silver-Washed Copper)

• Introduced under Caracalla (215 AD) at a nominal value of 2 denarii, though it contained less than double the silver
• Progressive debasement reduced silver content from ~50% to mere surface wash by mid-3rd century, creating a visible timeline of economic collapse
• Dominates 3rd-century archaeological contexts—its abundance and declining quality directly reflects the Crisis of the Third Century

Follis (Bronze)

• Diocletian's reformed bronze denomination (late 3rd century)—attempted to restore confidence after antoninianus collapse
• Size and weight varied considerably over time, requiring careful analysis of specific issues for accurate dating
• Tetrarchic and Constantinian imagery makes folles valuable for studying late Roman political ideology and religious transition

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two coins both served as gold standards but in different periods, and what does the transition between them reveal about Roman monetary policy?

2. If you excavated a 3rd-century site and found large quantities of heavily debased antoniniani, what economic conditions would this suggest, and how would you explain this to someone unfamiliar with Roman numismatics?

3. Compare the sestertius and the quadrans as propaganda tools—why did the Roman state invest in elaborate imagery on one but not the other?

4. An FRQ asks you to explain how archaeologists use coins to date occupation layers. Which denominations would be most useful and why?

5. What distinguishes crisis-era coinage (like the antoninianus) from reformed coinage (like the solidus), and what does each type tell us about the state's relationship with its economy?