Syntactical Structures

Why This Matters

Syntax isn't just about grammar rules—it's about rhetorical power. On the AP English Language exam, you're being tested on your ability to recognize how writers construct sentences to achieve specific effects and to deploy these same techniques in your own arguments. Every sentence structure choice signals something: emphasis, pace, emotional intensity, logical relationships. When you understand syntactical structures, you can analyze how professional writers manipulate language and craft more sophisticated arguments in your own essays.

These structures fall into clear categories based on what they accomplish: some create emphasis and suspense, others establish rhythm and balance, and still others control pacing and intensity. Don't just memorize definitions—know what effect each structure creates and when you'd use it. The multiple-choice section will ask you to identify why a writer chose a particular structure, and the FRQ expects you to use varied syntax intentionally. Master the function of each structure, and you'll be ready for both.

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Structures That Build Suspense and Emphasis

These structures manipulate where information lands in a sentence, controlling what readers focus on and how tension builds. The key principle: placement determines power.

Periodic Sentence

• Delays the main clause until the end—subordinate elements come first, creating suspense and forcing readers to wait for the payoff
• Builds anticipation through dependent clauses, phrases, or modifiers that stack before the independent clause arrives
• Ideal for climactic moments in arguments when you want your main point to land with maximum impact

Cumulative Sentence

• Opens with the main clause, then layers on modifying phrases and details—the opposite of periodic structure
• Creates a conversational, exploratory tone as ideas unfold naturally after the core statement
• Useful for elaboration when you want to develop a point without sacrificing clarity or momentum

Inverted Sentence

• Reverses standard subject-verb-object order to foreground unexpected elements—"Into the darkness they marched"
• Creates dramatic or poetic emphasis by disrupting reader expectations and drawing attention to specific words
• Effective in openings or transitions when you need to signal a shift in tone or importance

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Structures That Create Balance and Contrast

These structures use symmetry and opposition to make ideas memorable and arguments more compelling. The key principle: parallel form highlights logical relationships.

Parallel Structure

• Repeats grammatical forms across similar elements—verbs match verbs, phrases match phrases, clauses match clauses
• Enhances rhythm and readability, making complex ideas easier to follow and more persuasive
• Essential for lists, comparisons, and thesis statements—unparallel structure signals weak control to AP readers

Balanced Sentence

• Contains two or more clauses of similar length and structure, creating symmetry that feels deliberate and polished
• Conveys equal weight between ideas, suggesting careful reasoning and rhetorical control
• Powerful for presenting alternatives or establishing a thoughtful, measured tone

Antithesis

• Juxtaposes contrasting ideas in parallel structure—"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times"
• Sharpens distinctions by placing opposites side by side, making differences impossible to miss
• High-impact for thesis statements and conclusions where you want to define your position against alternatives

Chiasmus

• Reverses the structure of the first clause in the second—creating an AB/BA pattern like "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country"
• Creates memorable, quotable statements through its mirrored symmetry
• Signals rhetorical sophistication and works especially well for concluding statements or key arguments

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Structures That Control Rhythm and Pacing

These structures manipulate conjunctions and repetition to speed up, slow down, or intensify prose. The key principle: what you include or omit changes how readers experience time.

Anaphora

• Repeats a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses—"We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds..."
• Builds rhythmic momentum and reinforces central themes through insistent repetition
• Evokes emotional intensity, making it a favorite of speechwriters and persuasive essayists

Asyndeton

• Omits conjunctions between items or clauses—"I came, I saw, I conquered"
• Creates speed, urgency, and dramatic impact by removing the pauses conjunctions provide
• Suggests overwhelming quantity or rapid action, making lists feel more intense

Polysyndeton

• Includes multiple conjunctions where grammar doesn't require them—"and...and...and"
• Slows the pace deliberately, creating a sense of accumulation, endlessness, or emotional weight
• Emphasizes each individual item by giving it its own conjunction, suggesting everything matters equally

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Structures That Add Information Efficiently

These structures allow writers to pack more meaning into sentences without creating clutter. The key principle: syntactic embedding lets you integrate complexity smoothly.

Appositive

• A noun phrase that renames or clarifies an adjacent noun—"My brother, a talented musician, performed last night"
• Embeds additional information without requiring a separate sentence or clause
• Useful for integrating evidence in your own writing—attributing sources or adding context efficiently

Subordination

• Uses dependent clauses (beginning with because, although, since, while, if) to show relationships between ideas
• Signals which idea is primary and which is secondary, creating hierarchy and nuance
• Essential for complex arguments where you need to acknowledge complications while maintaining your main point

Coordination

• Links independent clauses with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
• Presents ideas as equally important, creating compound sentences with balanced weight
• Useful for connecting related points without implying that one subordinates to the other

Ellipsis (Grammatical)

• Omits words understood from context—"She ordered coffee; he, tea"
• Creates brevity and elegance by trusting readers to fill in the gaps
• Adds sophistication to parallel constructions and comparisons

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Structures That Create Surprise and Complexity

These structures play with reader expectations, linking ideas in unexpected ways. The key principle: breaking patterns creates memorability.

Zeugma

• Applies one word to multiple parts of a sentence in different senses—"She lowered her standards and her neckline"
• Creates wit and surprise by yoking together literal and figurative meanings
• Adds intellectual playfulness and can subtly critique or satirize

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two structures are opposites in their treatment of conjunctions, and what effect does each create?

2. A writer wants to build suspense before revealing a key argument. Should they use a periodic or cumulative sentence, and why?

3. Compare and contrast antithesis and chiasmus: what do they share, and how do their structures differ?

4. If you're writing an argument and want to acknowledge a counterargument while maintaining focus on your main claim, which structure (subordination or coordination) would be more effective? Explain your reasoning.

5. An FRQ prompt asks you to analyze how a speaker uses syntax to create emotional intensity. Which three structures from this guide would be most relevant to discuss, and what effects would you attribute to each?