Models of Organizational Change

Why This Matters

When exam questions ask about organizational change, they're testing whether you understand that different change scenarios require different leadership approaches. You're not just being asked to recall steps in a model—you're being evaluated on your ability to match the right framework to the right situation. A school implementing a new curriculum needs a different approach than one managing staff resistance to a merger. The models in this guide represent distinct philosophies: linear vs. cyclical change, individual vs. organizational focus, planned vs. emergent transformation.

These frameworks appear constantly in case study analyses, FRQ prompts asking you to "recommend an approach," and multiple-choice questions that test your ability to distinguish between models with similar-sounding phases. Don't just memorize the steps—know what problem each model solves and when a leader should choose one over another. That's the difference between surface-level recall and the analytical thinking that earns top scores.

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Linear, Phase-Based Models

These models assume change follows a predictable sequence of stages. Leaders using these frameworks believe that systematic progression through defined phases increases the likelihood of successful, lasting change.

Lewin's Three-Step Change Model

• Foundational simplicity—this is the "grandfather" of change models, and its three phases (Unfreeze → Change → Refreeze) appear embedded in nearly every subsequent framework
• Unfreeze challenges the status quo by creating dissatisfaction with current conditions, making the organization psychologically ready to accept new approaches
• Refreeze is the most neglected phase in practice—without deliberate reinforcement, organizations drift back to old behaviors, which is why this model emphasizes institutionalization

Kotter's 8-Step Change Model

• Coalition-building emphasis—Steps 1-4 focus entirely on preparation and buy-in before any implementation begins, reflecting Kotter's belief that 70% of change efforts fail due to insufficient groundwork
• Quick wins (Step 6) serve a strategic purpose: they provide visible evidence that change is working, which sustains momentum and silences skeptics during vulnerable early stages
• Anchoring in culture (Step 8) distinguishes lasting transformation from temporary compliance—change isn't complete until new behaviors become "how we do things here"

Lippitt's Phases of Change Theory

• Diagnostic foundation—unlike models that start with urgency or unfreezing, Lippitt begins with problem identification, making this ideal for situations where the need for change isn't yet clear
• Change agent role is explicit in this model; Lippitt emphasizes that leaders must assess both motivation and capacity before selecting strategies
• Evaluation phase closes the loop—this model treats change as incomplete without formal assessment of whether objectives were actually achieved

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Individual-Focused Models

These frameworks recognize that organizational change ultimately happens one person at a time. They provide tools for understanding and supporting how individuals experience and adopt change.

ADKAR Model

• Sequential individual milestones—Awareness → Desire → Knowledge → Ability → Reinforcement traces the psychological journey each person must complete before change takes hold
• Diagnostic power—when change stalls, ADKAR helps leaders identify where individuals are stuck (e.g., staff may have knowledge but lack ability, requiring coaching rather than more training)
• Prosci integration—ADKAR is the individual-level component of Prosci's broader methodology, making it essential for questions about connecting personal and organizational change

Kübler-Ross Change Curve

• Grief model adaptation—originally developed for processing death and loss, this framework (Denial → Anger → Bargaining → Depression → Acceptance) helps leaders anticipate emotional resistance to change
• Non-linear reality—despite its staged appearance, individuals move through these phases at different speeds and may regress, requiring patient, empathetic leadership
• Productivity dip is expected—the model predicts performance will decline during middle phases, helping leaders set realistic timelines and avoid abandoning change efforts prematurely

Bridges' Transition Model

• Endings before beginnings—Bridges uniquely emphasizes that successful change requires leaders to help people let go of the old before they can embrace the new
• Neutral Zone represents the messy middle where anxiety peaks and innovation becomes possible; skilled leaders create psychological safety during this uncomfortable but necessary phase
• Identity focus—this model addresses who people become after change, not just what they do, making it valuable for transformational changes that alter professional roles

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Systems-Oriented Models

These frameworks view organizations as interconnected components. Changing one element affects others, so leaders must consider alignment and interdependence across the entire system.

McKinsey 7-S Model

• Seven interdependent elements—Strategy, Structure, Systems, Shared Values, Style, Staff, and Skills must all align for change to succeed; adjusting one without considering others creates organizational friction
• Hard vs. soft distinction—Strategy, Structure, and Systems are tangible and easier to change; Shared Values, Style, Staff, and Skills are cultural and require longer-term effort
• Diagnostic rather than prescriptive—this model helps leaders identify what's misaligned but doesn't specify how to fix it, often used alongside implementation-focused models like Kotter

Nadler and Tushman's Congruence Model

• Input-transformation-output framework—analyzes how environment, resources, and history (inputs) flow through work, people, formal structures, and informal culture (transformation) to produce outcomes
• Congruence principle—organizational effectiveness depends on fit between components; high congruence means elements reinforce each other, while low congruence creates dysfunction
• Feedback loops make this model dynamic—outputs influence future inputs, creating cycles of continuous adjustment rather than one-time change events

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Emotionally-Aware Models

These frameworks center the psychological and emotional dimensions of change, acknowledging that human reactions to uncertainty often determine whether change succeeds or fails.

Satir Change Model

• Chaos as necessary—unlike models that try to minimize disruption, Satir normalizes a chaos phase where performance drops and confusion reigns, framing it as essential for transformation
• Five stages (Late Status Quo → Resistance → Chaos → Integration → New Status Quo) map the emotional arc of change, with the "foreign element" serving as the catalyst that disrupts equilibrium
• Integration focus—this model emphasizes that people must actively construct new ways of functioning; change isn't imposed but discovered through the chaos phase

Prosci's Change Management Model

• Three-tier architecture—combines organizational change management (project level), structured process (methodology level), and ADKAR (individual level) into a comprehensive system
• Research-backed methodology—Prosci's approach is grounded in data from thousands of change initiatives, lending empirical credibility that appeals to evidence-focused stakeholders
• Practitioner orientation—this model comes with extensive tools, templates, and certifications, making it the most operationally detailed framework for large-scale implementation

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. A principal notices that teachers understand a new grading policy (Knowledge) and want it to succeed (Desire) but struggle to implement it consistently. According to ADKAR, what milestone is missing, and what intervention would address it?

2. Compare Lewin's "Refreeze" phase with Kotter's "Anchor the Changes" step. What do they share in purpose, and how does Kotter's version provide more operational guidance?

3. Which two models would be most appropriate for a superintendent analyzing why a district-wide technology initiative failed due to misalignment between training programs and existing school structures? Justify your choices.

4. A school counselor observes staff members expressing frustration and attempting to negotiate exceptions to a new scheduling system. Using the Kübler-Ross Change Curve, identify the current phase and predict what comes next.

5. An FRQ asks you to recommend a change model for a school merger where staff are grieving the loss of their school's identity. Which model best addresses this scenario, and what specific phase or concept would you emphasize in your response?