Why This Matters
Metacognition—thinking about thinking—is one of the most heavily tested concepts in cognitive psychology because it sits at the intersection of memory, learning, problem-solving, and self-regulation. When you encounter exam questions about how people learn effectively, why some study strategies outperform others, or how experts differ from novices, you're being tested on metacognitive principles. Understanding these strategies also connects to broader topics like executive function, working memory limitations, and transfer of learning.
The strategies below aren't just study tips—they represent distinct cognitive mechanisms that psychologists have identified and researched extensively. You'll need to know why each strategy works (the underlying cognitive principle), not just what it involves. Don't just memorize the names; know what concept each strategy illustrates and be ready to compare strategies that share similar mechanisms but differ in application.
Strategies for Monitoring and Regulating Learning
These strategies involve executive control processes—the ability to observe your own cognition in real-time and make adjustments. They rely on what Flavell called metacognitive monitoring, the ongoing assessment of your current understanding relative to your learning goals.
Self-Monitoring
- Tracks comprehension during learning—involves checking whether you actually understand material as you encounter it, not just whether you've been exposed to it
- Triggers strategy shifts when current approaches aren't working, demonstrating the control aspect of metacognition
- Distinguishes novices from experts; skilled learners detect confusion earlier and respond more adaptively
Self-Reflection
- Retrospective analysis of learning outcomes—occurs after a learning episode to evaluate what worked and what didn't
- Connects new information to prior knowledge, activating schemas and promoting meaningful encoding
- Identifies calibration accuracy; research shows most learners are overconfident, making reflection essential for realistic self-assessment
Self-Evaluation
- Compares performance against explicit criteria—more structured than general reflection, requiring specific benchmarks
- Develops metacognitive knowledge about one's own cognitive strengths and weaknesses over time
- Promotes growth mindset by framing gaps as opportunities rather than fixed limitations
- Declarative knowledge about cognition itself—understanding that memory has limits, that certain strategies work better for certain tasks, and that learning requires effort
- Predicts academic success across domains; students high in metacognitive awareness outperform peers with similar ability levels
- Develops through explicit instruction and practice, not just maturation
Compare: Self-monitoring vs. self-evaluation—both involve assessment, but self-monitoring happens during learning (online) while self-evaluation occurs after (offline). FRQs often ask about the timing of metacognitive processes, so know this distinction.
Strategies for Encoding and Elaboration
These strategies enhance how information enters long-term memory by promoting deep processing. According to levels of processing theory, elaborative strategies create richer, more distinctive memory traces than shallow rehearsal.
Elaborative Rehearsal
- Links new information to existing knowledge structures—contrasts with maintenance rehearsal, which merely repeats information without meaningful processing
- Uses analogies, examples, and personal connections to create multiple retrieval pathways
- Explains the generation effect; self-generated elaborations produce stronger memories than passively received information
Concept Mapping
- Visual externalization of knowledge relationships—forces learners to identify hierarchies, connections, and categories explicitly
- Reduces cognitive load by offloading organizational work onto paper or screen
- Reveals misconceptions when students struggle to connect concepts logically; a diagnostic tool as much as a learning strategy
Note-Taking Strategies
- Transforms passive reception into active construction—methods like Cornell notes or mapping require real-time synthesis, not just transcription
- Engages generative processing; paraphrasing and organizing during note-taking improves retention over verbatim copying
- Creates external memory storage that supports later retrieval practice and review
Compare: Elaborative rehearsal vs. concept mapping—both promote deep encoding, but elaborative rehearsal emphasizes verbal connections while concept mapping emphasizes spatial organization. If an FRQ asks about visual learners or knowledge organization, concept mapping is your best example.
Strategies for Strengthening Retrieval
These strategies leverage the testing effect—the finding that actively retrieving information strengthens memory more than passive re-exposure. They work by strengthening retrieval routes and improving accessibility of stored information.
Retrieval Practice
- Active recall from memory without cues—self-testing produces stronger learning than re-reading or highlighting, even when retrieval attempts fail
- Enhances memory consolidation by reactivating and strengthening neural pathways during each retrieval attempt
- Demonstrates desirable difficulties; the effort required during retrieval is precisely what makes it effective
Spaced Repetition
- Distributes practice across increasing time intervals—exploits the spacing effect, one of the most robust findings in memory research
- Combats the forgetting curve by timing reviews just before information would be forgotten
- Optimizes study efficiency; algorithms can calculate ideal review timing based on individual performance
Self-Questioning
- Generates test-like conditions during study—creating questions forces deeper engagement than passive reading
- Identifies knowledge gaps before high-stakes testing; unanswered questions reveal what needs more work
- Promotes transfer by encouraging learners to consider material from multiple angles
Compare: Retrieval practice vs. spaced repetition—retrieval practice is what you do (actively recall), while spaced repetition is when you do it (distributed over time). Maximum benefit comes from combining both: spaced retrieval practice.
Strategies for Planning and Goal-Setting
These strategies engage the prospective aspect of metacognition—thinking ahead about how to approach learning tasks. They involve metacognitive regulation at the planning stage, before learning begins.
Planning and Goal-Setting
- SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) provide clear criteria for later self-evaluation
- Activates task-relevant strategies by prompting learners to consider what approaches will work best for specific objectives
- Enhances motivation through commitment and accountability; written goals increase follow-through
Error Analysis
- Systematic examination of mistakes—treats errors as data about underlying misconceptions rather than failures to avoid
- Informs future planning by revealing which concepts or skills need targeted practice
- Requires metacognitive honesty; learners must overcome ego-protective tendencies to analyze errors productively
Compare: Planning/goal-setting vs. error analysis—planning is prospective (before learning), while error analysis is retrospective (after mistakes). Together they create a feedback loop: errors inform better future planning.
Strategies Involving Externalization and Social Cognition
These strategies make internal cognitive processes visible—either to oneself or to others. Externalization supports metacognition by creating observable records of thinking that can be analyzed and refined.
Think-Aloud Protocols
- Verbalizes thought processes in real-time—originally a research method, now recognized as a powerful learning strategy
- Increases metacognitive awareness by forcing implicit processes into explicit consciousness
- Reveals problem-solving strategies that might otherwise remain automatic and unexamined
Reciprocal Teaching
- Structured peer instruction with rotating roles—typically involves summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting
- Leverages the protégé effect; preparing to teach forces deeper processing than preparing to be tested
- Develops metacognitive skills through social feedback; peers provide external monitoring that supports internal monitoring development
Summarization
- Distills material to essential points—requires discrimination between important and peripheral information
- Tests comprehension because accurate summarization is impossible without understanding
- Creates retrieval cues for later review; good summaries serve as compressed representations of larger knowledge structures
Compare: Think-aloud protocols vs. reciprocal teaching—both externalize cognition, but think-alouds are individual and focus on making your own thinking visible, while reciprocal teaching is social and uses peer interaction to develop metacognitive skills. Think-alouds are better for diagnosing individual strategy use; reciprocal teaching is better for developing monitoring through feedback.
Quick Reference Table
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| Metacognitive monitoring (during learning) | Self-monitoring, think-aloud protocols, self-questioning |
| Metacognitive evaluation (after learning) | Self-reflection, self-evaluation, error analysis |
| Metacognitive regulation/planning | Planning and goal-setting, metacognitive awareness |
| Deep encoding/elaboration | Elaborative rehearsal, concept mapping, note-taking strategies |
| Testing effect/retrieval strength | Retrieval practice, self-questioning, spaced repetition |
| Externalization of cognition | Think-aloud protocols, concept mapping, summarization |
| Social metacognition | Reciprocal teaching |
| Combating forgetting | Spaced repetition, retrieval practice |
Self-Check Questions
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Which two strategies both strengthen retrieval but differ in whether they address what you do versus when you do it? Explain how combining them maximizes learning.
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A student highlights textbook passages and re-reads notes before exams but performs poorly. Using metacognitive principles, identify which strategy category they're neglecting and recommend two specific alternatives.
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Compare and contrast self-monitoring and self-evaluation. When does each occur, and why does the timing matter for effective learning?
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If an FRQ asks you to explain why teaching material to a peer improves the teacher's own learning, which strategies and cognitive mechanisms would you discuss?
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A researcher wants to study how experts solve problems differently than novices. Which metacognitive strategy would best reveal these differences, and what would the researcher likely observe?