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Anthropology isn't just one discipline—it's four interconnected ways of asking the same fundamental question: what does it mean to be human? On your intro exam, you're being tested on how these subfields approach humanity from different angles while still informing each other. Understanding the holistic perspective—the idea that we can only understand humans by examining culture, biology, language, and history together—is central to everything you'll study in this course.
Each subfield uses distinct methods and asks different research questions, but they all share anthropology's commitment to cross-cultural comparison and long-term perspectives. Don't just memorize what each subfield studies—know what kinds of evidence they use, what questions they're equipped to answer, and how they overlap. When an FRQ asks you to analyze a human phenomenon, your job is to identify which subfield (or combination) offers the best toolkit.
Cultural anthropology examines the learned beliefs, practices, and social systems that make human groups distinct. This subfield operates on a key principle: culture is not innate but transmitted, and it shapes everything from kinship to economics to identity.
Biological anthropology investigates the physical, evolutionary, and genetic dimensions of being human. The core insight here: humans are biological organisms shaped by millions of years of evolution, yet our biology constantly interacts with our cultural environments.
Compare: Cultural Anthropology vs. Biological Anthropology—both study human diversity, but cultural anthropologists focus on learned behavior while biological anthropologists examine inherited traits and physical variation. If an FRQ asks about human adaptation, consider whether the adaptation is genetic or cultural (often it's both).
Linguistic anthropology treats language not just as a communication tool but as a window into cognition, identity, and social power. The guiding principle: language both reflects and shapes how we think about the world.
Compare: Linguistic Anthropology vs. Cultural Anthropology—both examine social life, but linguistic anthropologists specifically focus on how language mediates culture. When analyzing identity or power, cultural anthropologists might study rituals while linguistic anthropologists study speech patterns and terminology.
Archaeology reconstructs human pasts through physical remains when written records don't exist or tell an incomplete story. The key insight: material culture—the stuff humans make and leave behind—reveals patterns of behavior, social organization, and change over time.
Compare: Archaeology vs. Biological Anthropology—both work with physical remains, but archaeologists focus on cultural artifacts (tools, buildings, trash) while biological anthropologists focus on human bodies (bones, DNA). Forensic work sometimes bridges both.
| Concept | Best Examples |
|---|---|
| Living societies & learned behavior | Cultural Anthropology |
| Evolution & physical variation | Biological Anthropology |
| Language, identity & cognition | Linguistic Anthropology |
| Past societies & material remains | Archaeology |
| Ethnographic fieldwork methods | Cultural Anthropology, Linguistic Anthropology |
| Laboratory & excavation methods | Biological Anthropology, Archaeology |
| Biocultural interactions | Biological Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology |
| Long-term temporal perspectives | Archaeology, Biological Anthropology |
Which two subfields are most likely to collaborate when studying how ancient diets affected human skeletal development?
A researcher conducts participant observation in an urban neighborhood to understand how residents talk about gentrification. Which subfield(s) does this represent, and why?
Compare and contrast the types of evidence used by archaeologists versus cultural anthropologists. What can each reveal that the other cannot?
If an FRQ asks you to explain human adaptation to high-altitude environments, which subfields would you draw on, and what would each contribute?
How does linguistic anthropology's focus on language and power overlap with cultural anthropology's interest in social inequality? Give an example of a research question both might address.