Major Schools of Indian Philosophy to Know

Why This Matters

Indian philosophy isn't just a collection of ancient ideas—it's a systematic exploration of the most fundamental questions humans ask: What is real? What am I? How do I escape suffering? When you study these schools, you're being tested on your ability to distinguish between different metaphysical frameworks (what exists), epistemological methods (how we know), and soteriological goals (how we achieve liberation). The exam will expect you to recognize how schools like Samkhya and Vedanta offer competing answers to the same questions, or how Buddhism's rejection of the self puts it in direct conversation with Hindu traditions.

These schools don't exist in isolation—they developed in dialogue and debate with each other, borrowing concepts, refining arguments, and sometimes merging approaches. Understanding the relationships between schools matters as much as knowing individual doctrines. Don't just memorize that Nyaya focuses on logic; know why logical analysis became essential for defending religious claims against skeptics like the Charvakas. The real exam skill is connecting metaphysics to method to liberation path.

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Dualistic and Non-Dualistic Metaphysics

The central divide in Indian philosophy concerns whether ultimate reality is one unified substance or multiple distinct principles.

Vedanta

• Brahman-Atman identity—the ultimate teaching that individual self and universal reality are fundamentally one, expressed in the mahavakya (great saying) "Tat tvam asi" (That thou art)
• Three major sub-schools represent a spectrum: Advaita (complete non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism)—know these distinctions for comparison questions
• Moksha as realization—liberation comes not through action but through jnana (knowledge) that removes the ignorance obscuring our true nature

Samkhya

• Purusha-Prakriti dualism—consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti) are eternally distinct principles, making this the foundational dualistic system
• 25 tattvas (principles) systematically enumerate how reality evolves from primordial matter through intellect, ego, mind, senses, and elements
• Liberation through discrimination—freedom comes when Purusha recognizes itself as separate from Prakriti's transformations, ending identification with the material world

Kashmir Shaivism

• Radical non-dualism—identifies the individual self directly with Shiva (universal consciousness), going beyond even Advaita Vedanta's approach
• Shakti as creative power—divine energy isn't separate from consciousness but is its dynamic, creative expression in all phenomena
• Recognition (pratyabhijna)—liberation occurs when we recognize our always-already divine nature, finding sacred presence in everyday experience

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Knowledge and Logic Systems

Some schools prioritized developing rigorous methods for establishing valid knowledge, becoming the epistemological foundation for all Indian philosophical debate.

Nyaya

• Four pramanas (means of valid knowledge): perception, inference, comparison, and testimony—memorize these as the standard epistemological toolkit
• Systematic logic—developed formal rules for debate and argumentation that other schools adopted to defend their positions
• Theistic realism—uses logical arguments to prove God's existence as the creator and moral governor of the universe

Vaisheshika

• Atomic theory (anu)—proposes that all material objects are composed of indivisible particles, making this India's naturalistic physics
• Six categories (padarthas)—substance, quality, action, universality, particularity, and inherence provide a comprehensive classification of everything that exists
• Complementary to Nyaya—together they form the Nyaya-Vaisheshika synthesis, combining logical method with physical ontology

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Ritual, Action, and Dharma

Before philosophy turned toward liberation, the primary concern was understanding how ritual action maintains cosmic and social order.

Mimamsa

• Vedic authority—argues the Vedas are eternal, authorless (apaurusheya), and self-validating, establishing the scriptural foundation other schools must address
• Karma-kanda focus—emphasizes the ritual portions of the Vedas over the philosophical Upanishads, treating correct action as the path to spiritual results
• Dharma as primary goal—unlike liberation-focused schools, Mimamsa prioritizes righteousness achieved through proper ritual performance with correct intention

Yoga

• Eight limbs (ashtanga)—systematic path from ethical restraints (yama, niyama) through postures (asana) and breath control (pranayama) to meditation (dhyana) and absorption (samadhi)
• Practical application of Samkhya—accepts Samkhya's dualistic metaphysics but adds techniques for actually achieving the discrimination that brings liberation
• Chitta-vritti-nirodha—Patanjali defines yoga as the cessation of mental fluctuations, making stilling the mind the operational goal

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Heterodox Challenges

Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka rejected Vedic authority, forcing orthodox schools to sharpen their arguments and develop new defenses.

Buddhism

• Four Noble Truths—suffering (dukkha), its origin in craving, its cessation, and the path to cessation form the diagnostic framework for the human condition
• Anatta (non-self)—directly rejects the Hindu Atman concept, arguing that what we call "self" is merely a bundle of changing aggregates (skandhas)
• Middle Way—avoids extremes of self-indulgence and severe asceticism, with the Eightfold Path providing practical guidance for ethical living and mental cultivation

Jainism

• Ahimsa (non-violence)—the supreme ethical principle, extended to all living beings and requiring careful attention to avoid harming even insects
• Anekantavada (many-sidedness)—reality has multiple aspects, and no single perspective captures complete truth; this epistemological humility distinguishes Jain philosophy
• Karma as material substance—unlike other schools' moral causation, Jain karma literally weighs down the soul (jiva), requiring ascetic practices to burn it off

Charvaka/Lokayata

• Materialist skepticism—only perception counts as valid knowledge; inference is unreliable, and testimony (including Vedic scripture) proves nothing
• No afterlife, no Atman—consciousness is merely a byproduct of material elements combining, ending completely at death
• Hedonistic ethics—with no karmic consequences or future lives, pursue pleasure and avoid pain as the only rational approach to life

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two schools share a dualistic metaphysics but differ in whether the goal is discrimination (viveka) or union with the divine?

2. How does Charvaka's epistemology (perception-only) lead directly to its rejection of karma and rebirth—and why did this challenge force other schools to defend inference as valid knowledge?

3. Compare Buddhism's anatta with Jainism's jiva: both are heterodox, but what fundamental disagreement about the self separates them?

4. If an FRQ asked you to explain the relationship between Samkhya and Yoga, what would you identify as borrowed metaphysics versus original contribution?

5. Why might Mimamsa and Vedanta be considered two sides of the same textual tradition, and what does their disagreement reveal about the tension between action and knowledge in Hindu thought?