Major European Revolutions of 1848

Why This Matters

The Revolutions of 1848—often called the "Springtime of Peoples"—represent the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, and understanding them is essential for grasping how nationalism, liberalism, and socialism collided in the 19th century. You're being tested on your ability to explain why these revolutions erupted almost simultaneously across the continent, what forces drove them, and crucially, why they ultimately failed. These events connect directly to later developments like German and Italian unification, the decline of the Austrian Empire, and the rise of Realpolitik.

Don't just memorize which country revolted when—know what each revolution reveals about the tensions between conservative monarchies and rising demands for constitutional government, national self-determination, and social reform. The 1848 revolutions demonstrate how economic crisis can trigger political upheaval, how ethnic nationalism can both unite and divide movements, and how conservative forces learned to exploit revolutionary divisions. When you encounter FRQ prompts about nationalism or the failures of liberalism, these revolutions are your go-to examples.

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Revolutions Driven by Liberal Constitutionalism

These revolutions prioritized establishing constitutional governments, expanding voting rights, and limiting monarchical power. The liberal middle class sought political representation without necessarily embracing radical social change.

French Revolution of 1848

• Economic depression and political corruption sparked protests that forced King Louis-Philippe to abdicate in February, ending the July Monarchy
• The Second Republic introduced universal male suffrage, expanding the electorate from 250,000 to 9 million voters overnight
• Class conflict erupted in the June Days uprising when the government closed national workshops, revealing deep divisions between bourgeois liberals and the urban working class

Belgian Revolution of 1848

• Constitutional reforms rather than regime change defined Belgium's 1848 experience, as the country had already achieved independence in 1830
• Electoral expansion lowered property requirements for voting, nearly doubling the electorate in response to popular pressure
• Government concessions prevented violent upheaval, making Belgium a rare example of peaceful adaptation to revolutionary demands

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Revolutions Driven by National Unification

These movements sought to consolidate fragmented territories into unified nation-states. Nationalists believed that shared language, culture, and history entitled peoples to self-governing political units.

German Revolutions of 1848-1849

• The Frankfurt Assembly convened in May 1848 as elected delegates attempted to draft a liberal constitution for a unified Germany
• The "Grossdeutsch" vs. "Kleindeutsch" debate divided nationalists over whether to include Austria, paralyzing decision-making
• Frederick William IV's refusal to accept a crown "from the gutter" in 1849 doomed the liberal unification effort and demonstrated that unity would require force, not persuasion

Italian Revolutions of 1848

• Anti-Austrian uprisings erupted in Milan (the "Five Days"), Venice, and across the peninsula, driven by demands for independence and unification
• Giuseppe Mazzini established a short-lived Roman Republic while Giuseppe Garibaldi emerged as a military leader, both becoming icons of the Risorgimento
• Austrian military superiority crushed the revolts by 1849, but the revolutions established the nationalist networks that would achieve unification in 1861

Revolutions in the German Confederation

• Local uprisings in Baden, Saxony, and Bavaria demanded constitutional governments and press freedom alongside calls for national unity
• Liberal reforms were briefly achieved in several states, including jury trials and freedom of assembly
• Prussian military intervention suppressed radical movements, restoring conservative regimes but demonstrating Prussia's dominant role in German affairs

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Revolutions Against Multi-Ethnic Empires

These uprisings challenged the Habsburg and Ottoman empires, demanding autonomy or independence for subject nationalities. The tension between imperial unity and ethnic self-determination proved impossible to resolve.

Hungarian Revolution of 1848

• Lajos Kossuth's March Laws secured Hungarian autonomy, establishing a responsible ministry and abolishing serfdom within the Habsburg framework
• Declaration of independence in April 1849 escalated the conflict after Austria attempted to reassert control
• Russian intervention at Austria's request crushed the revolution with 200,000 troops, demonstrating conservative solidarity across borders

Austrian Empire Revolutions

• Multi-ethnic uprisings erupted simultaneously among Czechs in Prague, Italians in Milan, and Germans in Vienna itself
• Competing nationalisms undermined revolutionary unity—Czechs rejected inclusion in a German nation-state, while Croats opposed Hungarian dominance
• Divide and conquer tactics allowed the Habsburgs to use loyal ethnic groups against rebellious ones, restoring imperial authority by 1849

Romanian Revolutions of 1848

• Wallachian revolutionaries proclaimed a liberal constitution in June 1848, demanding land reform, civil equality, and eventual unification of Romanian-speaking territories
• Ottoman and Russian intervention crushed the movement within months, as both empires feared nationalist precedents
• The Transylvanian dimension complicated matters, as Romanians there faced Hungarian rather than Habsburg authority

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Revolutions Seeking National Independence

These movements sought complete separation from ruling powers rather than reform within existing structures. Independence movements combined liberal political demands with assertions of distinct national identity.

Irish Rebellion of 1848

• The Young Ireland movement attempted an armed uprising inspired by continental revolutions, seeking independence from Britain
• The Great Famine's devastation (1845-1852) radicalized Irish politics but also weakened the population's capacity for sustained resistance
• Rapid suppression of the poorly organized revolt demonstrated British military dominance, though it created martyrs for future nationalist movements

Danish-Prussian War (Schleswig-Holstein Question)

• Dynastic and national claims collided when Danish attempts to incorporate Schleswig triggered German nationalist outrage in 1848
• Prussian military intervention on behalf of German-speaking populations established a precedent for using nationalism to justify territorial expansion
• The 1848 armistice left the question unresolved, setting the stage for the decisive wars of 1864 that would begin German unification

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two revolutions best illustrate how competing nationalisms within a single movement contributed to revolutionary failure, and what specific groups came into conflict?

2. Compare the French Revolution of 1848 with the Hungarian Revolution: both achieved significant initial reforms, so what factors explain why France established a lasting republic while Hungary was crushed?

3. If an FRQ asks you to explain why the 1848 revolutions failed despite widespread popular support, which three examples would you use to demonstrate different causes of failure?

4. How do the German Revolutions of 1848-1849 and the Schleswig-Holstein conflict together illustrate the shift from liberal nationalism to state-driven unification that would characterize the 1860s?

5. Compare Belgium's experience in 1848 with that of the Austrian Empire: what does this contrast reveal about the relationship between prior constitutional development and revolutionary outcomes?