Logical Operators

Why This Matters

Logical operators are the fundamental tools that allow you to build, analyze, and evaluate arguments in formal logic. You're being tested not just on recognizing symbols like $\land$, $\lor$, and $\rightarrow$, but on understanding how truth values flow through compound statements, when arguments are valid, and why certain logical relationships hold. These operators appear in every proof, every truth table, and every logical equivalence you'll encounter—master them, and you've mastered the grammar of formal reasoning.

The key insight is that each operator has a specific truth-functional behavior—its output depends entirely on the truth values of its inputs. This means you can mechanically determine the truth of any complex statement once you know how each operator works. Don't just memorize symbols and truth tables; know what logical relationship each operator captures and when to apply each one in constructing or analyzing arguments.

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Unary Operators: Transforming Single Propositions

Some operators work on just one proposition, transforming its truth value. Negation is the only standard unary operator, but it's foundational to everything else.

Negation (NOT)

• Symbol: $\neg$ or $\sim$—flips the truth value of any proposition (true becomes false, false becomes true)
• Truth-functional definition: $\neg P$ is true if and only if $P$ is false
• Double negation equivalence: $\neg \neg P \equiv P$—crucial for proofs and simplification

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Conjunction and Disjunction: Combining Propositions

These binary operators combine two propositions based on whether both or at least one must be true. They represent the logical versions of "and" and "or" from everyday language.

Conjunction (AND)

• Symbol: $\land$ or $\cdot$—true only when both propositions are true
• Strictest binary operator: one false conjunct makes the whole conjunction false
• Commutativity: $P \land Q \equiv Q \land P$—order doesn't matter for truth value

Disjunction (OR)

• Symbol: $\lor$—true when at least one proposition is true (inclusive OR)
• Default interpretation is inclusive: $P \lor Q$ is true even when both $P$ and $Q$ are true
• Key equivalence: $P \lor Q \equiv \neg(\neg P \land \neg Q)$—connects disjunction to conjunction via De Morgan's Law

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Conditional Operators: Expressing Implication

Conditionals capture "if-then" relationships and are central to logical argumentation. The material conditional's truth conditions often surprise students—focus on when it's false, not when it's true.

Conditional (IF-THEN)

• Symbol: $\rightarrow$ or $\supset$—false only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false
• Antecedent/consequent terminology: in $P \rightarrow Q$, $P$ is the antecedent, $Q$ is the consequent
• Vacuous truth: when the antecedent is false, the conditional is automatically true—this is counterintuitive but essential

Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF)

• Symbol: $\leftrightarrow$ or $\equiv$—true when both propositions have the same truth value
• Expresses equivalence: $P \leftrightarrow Q$ means $P$ and $Q$ are logically interchangeable
• Decomposes to: $(P \rightarrow Q) \land (Q \rightarrow P)$—the conjunction of both directions

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Exclusive and Negated Operators: Special Cases

These operators handle scenarios where standard conjunction/disjunction don't capture the intended meaning. XOR distinguishes "one or the other but not both," while NAND and NOR negate the basic operators.

Exclusive OR (XOR)

• Symbol: $\oplus$ or $\veebar$—true when exactly one proposition is true, not both
• Differs from inclusive OR: $P \oplus Q$ is false when both $P$ and $Q$ are true
• Equivalence: $P \oplus Q \equiv (P \lor Q) \land \neg(P \land Q)$—disjunction minus conjunction

NAND (NOT AND)

• Symbol: $\uparrow$ or $\mid$—true unless both propositions are true
• Functional completeness: NAND alone can express any logical operator—it's a universal gate
• Equivalence: $P \uparrow Q \equiv \neg(P \land Q)$—simply the negation of conjunction

NOR (NOT OR)

• Symbol: $\downarrow$—true only when both propositions are false
• Also functionally complete: like NAND, NOR can express any logical operator alone
• Equivalence: $P \downarrow Q \equiv \neg(P \lor Q)$—the negation of disjunction

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Quantifiers: Extending to Predicate Logic

Quantifiers move beyond propositional logic to express claims about domains of objects. They don't combine propositions—they bind variables within predicates.

Universal Quantifier

• Symbol: $\forall$—asserts that a property holds for all elements in the domain
• Form: $\forall x \, P(x)$ means "for every $x$, $P(x)$ is true"
• Falsified by one counterexample: a single element where $P(x)$ fails makes $\forall x \, P(x)$ false

Existential Quantifier

• Symbol: $\exists$—asserts that at least one element in the domain satisfies the property
• Form: $\exists x \, P(x)$ means "there exists some $x$ such that $P(x)$ is true"
• Negation relationship: $\neg \forall x \, P(x) \equiv \exists x \, \neg P(x)$—"not all" equals "some are not"

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two operators are functionally complete, meaning each can express all other logical operators on its own?

2. Compare the truth conditions for $P \rightarrow Q$ and $P \leftrightarrow Q$—under what input combinations do they differ in truth value?

3. If $P \lor Q$ is true and $P \oplus Q$ is false, what can you conclude about the truth values of $P$ and $Q$?

4. How does negating a universal quantifier ($\neg \forall x \, P(x)$) relate to the existential quantifier? Write the equivalence and explain why it holds.

5. An FRQ asks you to express "at least one of the conditions must fail" using logical operators. Which operator(s) would you use, and how would you structure the expression?