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When you encounter questions about deviance on your exam, you're not just being tested on definitions. You're being asked to explain why people break rules and how society responds. These theories represent fundamentally different assumptions about human nature and social order. Some assume people are naturally conformist and need to be pushed toward deviance; others assume people are naturally self-interested and need to be pulled toward conformity. Understanding this distinction is the key to comparing theories effectively.
Each theory also implies different policy solutions to deviance. If deviance is learned, we should change peer environments. If it results from blocked opportunities, we should expand access to legitimate means. If it comes from labeling, we should be more cautious about who we criminalize. Don't just memorize what each theory says. Know what each one illustrates and what it suggests we should do about deviance.
These theories locate the cause of deviance in social structures rather than individual pathology. The core idea: when society is organized in certain ways, deviance becomes a predictable outcome.
Robert Merton built this theory around a simple tension: American culture tells everyone to pursue material success, but the structure of society doesn't give everyone equal access to legitimate ways of achieving it. That gap between goals and means produces strain, and people adapt to it in different ways.
Durkheim's concept of anomie refers to a state of normlessness, where the shared rules that normally guide behavior weaken or collapse. Without clear norms, people lose their sense of what's expected and acceptable.
Developed by Shaw and McKay at the Chicago School, this theory takes an ecological approach. It argues that neighborhood characteristics, not individual traits, predict crime rates.
Compare: Strain Theory vs. Anomie Theory: both identify structural conditions that produce deviance, but strain focuses on goal-means discrepancy while anomie emphasizes normative breakdown. On an FRQ, strain explains property crime better; anomie explains suicide and addiction.
These theories reject the idea that deviance is pathological. Instead, deviant behavior is learned the same way conforming behavior is learned, through social interaction and reinforcement.
Edwin Sutherland argued that criminal behavior isn't caused by poverty or psychology. It's learned through intimate personal groups, like family, close friends, and peers, not through media or casual contact.
Ronald Akers expanded on Sutherland's framework by incorporating concepts from Bandura's broader social learning research. The addition: we don't just absorb norms passively. We observe consequences and imitate what we see working.
Compare: Differential Association vs. Social Learning Theory: both emphasize learned deviance, but differential association focuses on transmitted definitions while social learning adds observation and reinforcement mechanisms. Social learning theory better accounts for individual variation within the same environment.
These theories flip the question. Instead of asking "why do people deviate?" they ask "why do most people conform?" The answer: social bonds and rational calculations constrain behavior. The underlying assumption is that deviance is tempting or natural, and what requires explanation is conformity.
Travis Hirschi proposed that people conform because they are bonded to conventional society. When those bonds weaken, deviance becomes more likely. His four bonds are:
Weak bonds predict delinquency. This is why family disruption, school disconnection, and social isolation correlate with youth crime.
This theory treats potential offenders as decision-makers who weigh costs against benefits before acting. Deviance happens when the expected rewards outweigh the expected risks.
Compare: Control Theory vs. Rational Choice Theory: both assume people need reasons not to deviate, but control theory emphasizes social bonds while rational choice emphasizes calculated self-interest. Control theory better explains why some people never consider crime; rational choice better explains why offenders choose specific targets and timing.
These theories shift focus from the act to the reaction. Deviance isn't inherent in behavior. It's created through social definitions and power dynamics.
Howard Becker famously wrote that deviance is not a quality of the act but of the response others have to it. The central distinction is between two stages of deviance:
Rooted in Marxist thought, conflict theory argues that laws reflect ruling class interests. What counts as deviance is defined by those with the power to make and enforce rules.
Compare: Labeling Theory vs. Conflict Theory: both emphasize power in defining deviance, but labeling theory focuses on micro-level interactions and identity transformation while conflict theory emphasizes macro-level inequality and class interests. Use labeling for questions about individual trajectories; use conflict for questions about systemic bias.
This perspective asks a counterintuitive question: if deviance is harmful, why does every society have it? Durkheim's answer: deviance performs necessary social functions.
Compare: Functionalist Theory vs. Conflict Theory: both are macro-level perspectives, but functionalism sees deviance as serving society's needs while conflict theory sees it as reflecting power struggles. Functionalism assumes broad consensus about norms; conflict theory assumes norms benefit some groups over others.
| Concept | Best Examples |
|---|---|
| Structure causes deviance | Strain Theory, Anomie Theory, Social Disorganization Theory |
| Deviance is learned | Differential Association Theory, Social Learning Theory |
| Bonds prevent deviance | Control Theory, Rational Choice Theory |
| Labels create deviants | Labeling Theory, Conflict Theory |
| Deviance serves functions | Functionalist Theory |
| Emphasizes power/inequality | Conflict Theory, Labeling Theory |
| Micro-level focus | Labeling Theory, Social Learning Theory, Differential Association Theory |
| Macro-level focus | Functionalist Theory, Conflict Theory, Anomie Theory |
Which two theories both emphasize that deviance is learned through social interaction, and what distinguishes their explanations of how learning occurs?
A student from a low-income neighborhood turns to drug dealing after being unable to find legitimate employment. Which theory best explains this, and which of Merton's five adaptations does it represent?
Compare and contrast Control Theory and Labeling Theory: one asks why people conform, the other examines what happens after rule-breaking. How do their assumptions about human nature differ?
An FRQ asks you to explain why crime rates are higher in some neighborhoods than others without blaming individual residents. Which theory provides the best framework, and what three neighborhood characteristics would you cite?
How would a functionalist and a conflict theorist disagree about the purpose of criminal law? Use a specific example (such as drug laws or property crime) to illustrate the contrast.