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Scholastic philosophy represents one of the most significant intellectual movements you'll encounter in medieval European history. These thinkers weren't just debating abstract ideas—they were wrestling with fundamental questions about how humans can know anything at all, whether faith and reason could coexist, and what role ancient Greek philosophy should play in Christian Europe. Their debates shaped universities, influenced Church doctrine, and created intellectual frameworks that would eventually give rise to both the Scientific Revolution and the Reformation.
When you're tested on this material, you're being assessed on your understanding of intellectual synthesis, the faith-reason debate, and the transmission of classical knowledge. Don't just memorize names and dates—know what philosophical problem each thinker was trying to solve and how their approach differed from their predecessors. The ability to compare methodologies (empiricism vs. rationalism, realism vs. nominalism) is exactly what FRQ prompts target.
These philosophers believed human reason alone could demonstrate God's existence—a radical claim that elevated philosophy alongside Scripture as a path to truth. Their arguments attempted to make faith intellectually respectable to skeptics and scholars alike.
Compare: Anselm vs. Aquinas—both used reason to prove God, but Anselm's ontological argument works purely through logic, while Aquinas's Five Ways rely on observation of the physical world. If an FRQ asks about medieval approaches to faith and reason, Aquinas is your strongest example of synthesis.
These thinkers revolutionized how scholars approached knowledge, emphasizing questioning, debate, and the systematic examination of contradictions. Their methods transformed medieval universities into centers of rigorous intellectual exchange.
Compare: Abelard vs. Albertus Magnus—both advanced scholastic method, but Abelard focused on logical technique (how to argue), while Albertus focused on content integration (what to study). Abelard's approach was more disruptive; Albertus's was more constructive.
Not all scholastics trusted pure reason. These philosophers emphasized that true knowledge requires divine assistance—God must illuminate the mind for humans to grasp higher truths.
Compare: Bonaventure vs. Aquinas—both were 13th-century giants, but Bonaventure prioritized mystical experience and Augustinian illumination, while Aquinas trusted Aristotelian reason more fully. This represents a fundamental split in scholastic approaches to knowledge.
These thinkers began shifting emphasis from pure logic toward observation and experimentation, anticipating methods that would later define the Scientific Revolution.
Compare: Roger Bacon vs. William of Ockham—both challenged scholastic orthodoxy, but Bacon pushed toward empirical science (observe more), while Ockham pushed toward philosophical skepticism (assume less). Ockham's nominalism would influence Protestant theology; Bacon's empiricism would influence the Scientific Revolution.
| Concept | Best Examples |
|---|---|
| Rational proofs for God | Anselm (ontological argument), Aquinas (Five Ways) |
| Faith-reason synthesis | Aquinas, Albertus Magnus |
| Dialectical method | Abelard (Sic et Non), Albertus Magnus |
| Divine illumination/mysticism | Bonaventure, Duns Scotus |
| Early empiricism | Roger Bacon |
| Nominalism vs. realism | William of Ockham (nominalist), Duns Scotus (realist) |
| Aristotelian integration | Aquinas, Albertus Magnus |
| Influence on later science | Roger Bacon, William of Ockham |
Which two philosophers both attempted to prove God's existence through reason, and how did their methods differ (one purely logical, one based on observation)?
Identify the philosopher whose principle of parsimony ("do not multiply entities beyond necessity") influenced both scientific method and philosophical skepticism.
Compare and contrast Bonaventure and Aquinas: what fundamental disagreement did they have about whether human reason alone can achieve true knowledge?
If an FRQ asked you to explain how medieval scholars transmitted and adapted classical Greek philosophy, which two thinkers would provide the strongest examples and why?
Which philosopher's emphasis on experimentation and mathematics most directly anticipated Scientific Revolution methodology, and what specific areas did he study?