Key Personality Theories

Why This Matters

Personality theories are central to Unit 4 of AP Psychology, and you're being tested on more than just names and dates—you need to understand how each theory explains what drives human behavior. The exam frequently asks you to compare approaches: Does personality come from unconscious conflicts, learned behaviors, stable traits, or the interaction between person and environment? Each theory offers a different answer, and knowing these distinctions is what separates a 3 from a 5.

These theories also connect to other major course themes: defense mechanisms, self-concept, observational learning, and biological bases of behavior. You'll see them resurface in units on treatment, disorders, and development. Don't just memorize which psychologist said what—know what mechanism each theory proposes and how you'd apply it to an FRQ scenario asking why someone behaves a certain way.

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Psychodynamic Approaches: The Unconscious Mind Drives Behavior

Psychodynamic theories share a core assumption: much of personality operates below conscious awareness. These approaches focus on internal conflicts, early experiences, and the ways we protect ourselves from psychological distress.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

• Unconscious processes—Freud argued that hidden desires, memories, and conflicts shape personality without our awareness
• Id, ego, and superego—these three structures compete for control; the id seeks pleasure, the superego enforces morality, and the ego mediates between them
• Defense mechanisms like repression, projection, and displacement protect the ego from anxiety and are frequently tested on the AP exam

Neo-Freudian Theories (Jung, Adler, Horney)

• Carl Jung introduced the collective unconscious—a shared reservoir of archetypes (universal symbols and themes) inherited across humanity
• Alfred Adler emphasized social interest and the inferiority complex, arguing that striving to overcome feelings of inadequacy motivates behavior
• Karen Horney challenged Freud's male-centered views, proposing that social and cultural factors—not biology—shape personality development

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Humanistic Approaches: Growth, Potential, and Self-Concept

Humanistic theories reject the determinism of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Instead, they emphasize free will, subjective experience, and the inherent drive toward personal growth.

Humanistic Theory (Rogers and Maslow)

• Carl Rogers stressed unconditional positive regard—acceptance without conditions—as essential for healthy personality development
• Self-concept refers to how we view ourselves; Rogers distinguished between the ideal self (who we want to be) and the real self (who we actually are)
• Self-actualization represents the pinnacle of Maslow's hierarchy—the drive to fulfill one's unique potential, a concept Rogers also emphasized through the self-actualizing tendency

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Trait Approaches: Describing Stable Patterns of Behavior

Trait theories focus on identifying and measuring consistent characteristics that differ across individuals. Rather than explaining how personality develops, trait theorists describe what personality looks like.

Trait Theory (Allport, Cattell, Big Five)

• Gordon Allport categorized traits into three levels: cardinal (dominant, rare), central (core characteristics), and secondary (situational preferences)
• Raymond Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 source traits, measured by the 16PF questionnaire
• The Big Five (OCEAN)—Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism—is the most widely accepted trait model and appears frequently on AP exams

Hans Eysenck's PEN Model

• Three broad dimensions—Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism—form the basis of Eysenck's biologically-grounded trait theory
• Biological basis—Eysenck proposed that traits reflect differences in nervous system arousal and brain structure
• Extraversion, for example, relates to cortical arousal levels; introverts have higher baseline arousal and seek less stimulation

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Social-Cognitive Approaches: Person, Behavior, and Environment Interact

Social-cognitive theory bridges behaviorism and cognitive psychology, emphasizing that personality emerges from the ongoing interaction between thoughts, actions, and situations.

Social-Cognitive Theory (Bandura)

• Reciprocal determinism—personality results from the continuous interaction among personal factors (beliefs, expectations), behavior, and environmental influences
• Self-efficacy refers to your belief in your ability to succeed at specific tasks; it's a stronger predictor of behavior than general self-esteem
• Observational learning—Bandura demonstrated that we acquire behaviors by watching others, not just through direct reinforcement

Rotter's Locus of Control

• Locus of control describes whether you attribute outcomes to internal factors (your own effort) or external factors (luck, others' actions)
• Internal locus correlates with greater persistence, achievement motivation, and psychological well-being
• Explanatory style connects to this concept—optimistic styles attribute failures to external, temporary causes, while pessimistic styles internalize blame

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Behavioral and Biological Approaches: External and Internal Determinants

These approaches minimize the role of internal mental states, instead attributing personality to environmental conditioning or biological inheritance.

Behavioral Theory (Skinner)

• Operant conditioning—personality is simply the sum of learned behaviors shaped by reinforcement and punishment
• Observable behavior is the only valid subject of study; Skinner rejected concepts like "traits" or "unconscious" as unscientific
• Environmental determinism—who you are depends entirely on your history of conditioning, not internal drives or choices

Biological Approach to Personality

• Genetic influences—twin studies show that identical twins raised apart still share personality traits, suggesting a hereditary component
• Brain structure and neurotransmitters affect traits; for example, differences in dopamine pathways relate to sensation-seeking and extraversion
• Temperament—biologically-based emotional reactivity patterns present from infancy—provides the foundation for later personality development

Evolutionary Theory of Personality

• Adaptive traits—certain personality characteristics may have evolved because they solved problems faced by our ancestors (survival and reproduction)
• Natural selection favored traits like cooperation, vigilance, and social dominance in different contexts
• Universal patterns—evolutionary psychologists argue that some traits appear across all cultures because they provided consistent adaptive advantages

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two theories both emphasize unconscious processes but differ in whether they prioritize sexual drives or social/cultural factors?

2. How would Rogers and Freud each explain why someone develops low self-esteem? What mechanism does each theory propose?

3. A student believes she failed a test because of bad luck rather than lack of studying. Using Rotter's concept, what type of locus of control does this reflect, and how might it affect future behavior?

4. Compare Bandura's social-cognitive theory with Skinner's behaviorism: What role do cognitive factors play in each, and how would each explain why someone imitates an aggressive model?

5. If an FRQ asks you to explain personality differences between identical twins raised in different environments, which two theoretical approaches would provide the most useful contrast, and what would each predict?