Key Memory Models

Why This Matters

Memory isn't just one thing—it's a collection of systems, processes, and structures that cognitive psychologists have spent decades trying to map. You're being tested on your ability to distinguish between these models and explain why each one matters for understanding how information gets encoded, stored, and retrieved. The models here represent fundamentally different ways of conceptualizing memory: some focus on structural components (what memory is made of), others on processing dynamics (how information moves through the system), and still others on organizational principles (how knowledge gets structured and connected).

Don't just memorize the names and components of each model—know what problem each model was designed to solve and how they relate to each other. Can you explain why Baddeley's working memory model was an improvement over the original multi-store model? Can you articulate the difference between structural and processing approaches to memory? These are the kinds of comparative questions that show up on exams, especially in FRQs asking you to evaluate or apply memory theories to real-world scenarios.

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Structural Models: What Memory Is Made Of

These models propose that memory consists of distinct stores or systems, each with unique characteristics and functions. The key insight is that different types of information are handled by specialized components.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (Multi-Store Model)

• Three sequential stores—sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM)—form the backbone of this classic model
• Rehearsal is the critical mechanism for transferring information from STM to LTM; without it, information decays or is displaced
• Attention acts as the gatekeeper between sensory and short-term memory, determining what gets processed further

Baddeley's Working Memory Model

• Working memory replaces STM as an active system for holding and manipulating information, not just passive storage
• Four components—the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer—handle different types of processing
• Central executive coordinates attention and manages cognitive resources, explaining why multitasking is so difficult

Tulving's SPI Model

• Three long-term memory systems—episodic, semantic, and procedural—operate with distinct encoding and retrieval processes
• Serial encoding, parallel storage, independent retrieval (SPI) describes how these systems interact during memory operations
• Procedural memory handles skills and habits, explaining why you can ride a bike without consciously remembering how you learned

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Processing Models: How Encoding Determines Memory

These models shift focus from where information is stored to how it's processed. The depth and type of encoding matter more than time spent rehearsing.

Levels of Processing Model

• Depth over duration—memory strength depends on how meaningfully information is processed, not how long it's held
• Shallow processing involves surface features (how a word looks or sounds), while deep processing engages meaning and connections
• Elaborative rehearsal (connecting new information to existing knowledge) beats maintenance rehearsal for long-term retention

Dual Coding Theory

• Verbal and visual encoding together produces stronger memory traces than either alone—this is why diagrams with labels work
• Mental imagery serves as a second retrieval pathway; if you can't recall the word, you might recall the picture
• Concrete concepts are easier to remember than abstract ones because they're more easily visualized

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Network Models: How Knowledge Is Organized

These models conceptualize memory as interconnected nodes rather than separate stores. Retrieval depends on activation patterns spreading through a web of associations.

Spreading Activation Theory

• Activating one concept primes related concepts—thinking "doctor" makes "nurse" easier to retrieve because they're linked in semantic networks
• Retrieval is a search process where activation spreads from a cue through connected nodes until the target is reached
• Priming effects demonstrate this model experimentally; related words are recognized faster than unrelated words

Parallel Distributed Processing Model

• Memory as distributed patterns—information isn't stored in single locations but across networks of interconnected nodes
• Simultaneous processing allows the system to handle multiple inputs at once, unlike serial processing models
• Learning strengthens connections between nodes that fire together, echoing the Hebbian principle (neurons that fire together wire together)

Connectionist Models

• Neural network architecture—memory is modeled as layers of interconnected units mimicking how neurons communicate
• Activation patterns across the network represent knowledge; no single unit stores a complete memory
• Graceful degradation means the system can still function even when some units are damaged, explaining why brain injuries don't erase entire memories

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Organizational Models: How Knowledge Is Structured

These models explain how prior knowledge shapes the encoding and retrieval of new information. What you already know determines what you can learn and remember.

Schema Theory

• Schemas are mental frameworks—organized knowledge structures that help you interpret new information based on past experience
• Top-down processing means schemas guide what you notice, encode, and later reconstruct during retrieval
• Schema-consistent information is remembered better, but schemas can also cause memory distortions when details are filled in incorrectly

Episodic and Semantic Memory Model

• Episodic memory stores personal experiences with contextual details (what happened, where, when)
• Semantic memory stores general knowledge abstracted from specific episodes (facts, concepts, meanings)
• Bidirectional influence—repeated episodic experiences can become semantic knowledge, and semantic knowledge shapes how episodes are encoded

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Both the Levels of Processing model and Dual Coding Theory emphasize encoding quality—what distinguishes their explanations for why some information is remembered better than others?

2. If a patient with brain damage can still recall general facts but cannot remember personal experiences, which model best explains this dissociation, and what memory systems are affected?

3. Compare and contrast the Atkinson-Shiffrin model with Baddeley's Working Memory model. What limitation of the original model did Baddeley's revision address?

4. A student uses the method of loci (imagining items placed in familiar locations) to memorize a list. Which two memory models best explain why this technique works?

5. An FRQ asks you to explain why eyewitness testimony can be unreliable. Which memory model would you use, and what specific mechanism would you describe?