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When you encounter ethics questions on an exam, you're not just being asked to define theories—you're being tested on your ability to apply different moral frameworks to real-world dilemmas and explain why they lead to different conclusions. Understanding these theories means grasping the fundamental question each one answers: Should we focus on outcomes, duties, character, relationships, or something else entirely when determining right from wrong?
The theories in this guide represent centuries of philosophical debate about the foundations of morality. Each offers a distinct lens for evaluating actions, and exam questions frequently ask you to compare approaches or identify which theory best addresses a particular scenario. Don't just memorize names and definitions—know what makes each theory unique, where they overlap, and where they fundamentally disagree.
These theories share a common premise: the morality of an action depends on what happens as a result. They look forward to outcomes rather than backward to intentions or rules.
Compare: Utilitarianism vs. Ethical Egoism—both evaluate actions by consequences, but utilitarianism considers everyone's well-being equally while egoism prioritizes the agent's own interests. If an exam asks about self-sacrifice, this contrast is your key example.
Rather than asking "what will happen?", these theories ask "what am I obligated to do?" The rightness of an action comes from following moral rules or commands, regardless of outcomes.
Compare: Kantian Ethics vs. Divine Command Theory—both ground morality in duties rather than consequences, but Kant locates moral authority in reason itself while Divine Command Theory locates it in God's will. This matters for questions about secular versus religious ethics.
These approaches shift focus from what should I do? to what kind of person should I be? Moral development is about cultivating the right traits over time.
Compare: Virtue Ethics vs. Deontological Ethics—both care about the moral agent, but deontology asks "did you follow the rule?" while virtue ethics asks "did you act as a person of good character would?" Virtue ethics allows more flexibility in particular situations.
These theories ground morality in human connections—either formal agreements that create society or the caring relationships that sustain it.
Compare: Social Contract Theory vs. Care Ethics—both emphasize human relationships, but social contract theory focuses on formal agreements between autonomous individuals while care ethics emphasizes emotional bonds and interdependence. Care ethics challenges the social contract's assumption that we're primarily self-interested bargainers.
These theories step back to ask: What is the nature of morality itself? Rather than prescribing actions, they examine the foundations of ethical claims.
Compare: Natural Law Theory vs. Moral Relativism—these represent opposite poles on whether objective moral truths exist. Natural law claims reason can discover universal principles; relativism denies any cross-cultural moral standards. Exam questions about human rights often hinge on this debate.
| Concept | Best Examples |
|---|---|
| Outcomes determine morality | Consequentialism, Utilitarianism, Ethical Egoism |
| Duties/rules determine morality | Deontological Ethics, Divine Command Theory |
| Character determines morality | Virtue Ethics |
| Reason reveals moral truth | Natural Law Theory, Kantian Ethics |
| Relationships ground ethics | Care Ethics, Social Contract Theory |
| Morality is culturally variable | Moral Relativism |
| Religious foundation for ethics | Divine Command Theory |
| Feminist contributions to ethics | Care Ethics |
Which two theories both emphasize consequences but disagree about whose well-being matters most? Explain the key difference.
A hospital has one dose of medicine and must choose between saving one famous scientist or five unknown patients. Which theory would most clearly support saving the five, and which might challenge that conclusion? Why?
Compare and contrast how Kantian Ethics and Virtue Ethics would evaluate someone who lies to protect a friend. What does each theory prioritize?
If an FRQ asks you to defend universal human rights against a moral relativist critique, which theory provides your strongest counterargument? Explain your reasoning.
Both Social Contract Theory and Care Ethics reject purely individualistic approaches to morality. How do their visions of human relationships differ, and what does each emphasize as the basis for ethical obligation?