Key Equal Protection Clause Cases

The Equal Protection Clause has shaped civil rights by addressing discrimination based on race and gender. Landmark cases illustrate the ongoing struggle for equality, highlighting significant shifts in legal interpretations that impact marginalized groups and advance civil liberties for all.

1. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

   • Established the "separate but equal" doctrine, legitimizing racial segregation.
   • Affirmed that state laws requiring racial segregation did not violate the Equal Protection Clause.
   • Set a precedent that allowed for systemic discrimination against African Americans for decades.

2. Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

   • Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson, declaring that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.
   • Ruled that racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause.
   • Marked a significant victory for the Civil Rights Movement and initiated the desegregation of schools.

3. Loving v. Virginia (1967)

   • Struck down laws banning interracial marriage as unconstitutional.
   • Affirmed that marriage is a fundamental right protected by the Constitution.
   • Reinforced the principle that racial classifications are subject to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause.

4. Reed v. Reed (1971)

   • Held that a law giving preference to men over women in estate administration violated the Equal Protection Clause.
   • Established that gender discrimination is subject to scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause.
   • Paved the way for future cases addressing gender equality and discrimination.

5. Craig v. Boren (1976)

   • Introduced the "intermediate scrutiny" standard for gender discrimination cases.
   • Ruled that a law allowing women to purchase alcohol at a younger age than men was unconstitutional.
   • Emphasized that gender-based classifications must serve important governmental objectives.

6. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

   • Ruled that racial quotas in college admissions were unconstitutional but allowed for race to be one of several factors.
   • Affirmed the importance of diversity in higher education.
   • Set a precedent for affirmative action policies in college admissions.

7. United States v. Virginia (1996)

   • Struck down the Virginia Military Institute's male-only admissions policy as unconstitutional.
   • Established that gender-based discrimination must meet an "exceedingly persuasive justification."
   • Reinforced the principle that public institutions cannot discriminate based on gender.

8. Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)

   • Upheld the use of race as a factor in university admissions to promote diversity.
   • Affirmed that educational institutions have a compelling interest in achieving diversity.
   • Clarified that affirmative action policies must be narrowly tailored to achieve their goals.

9. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

   • Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, ruling that state bans violated the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses.
   • Recognized marriage as a fundamental right for all individuals, regardless of sexual orientation.
   • Marked a significant advancement in LGBTQ+ rights and equality.

10. Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)

    • Upheld the University of Texas's affirmative action policy, affirming the use of race in admissions.
    • Reinforced the principle that universities can consider race as part of a holistic admissions process.
    • Emphasized the need for ongoing scrutiny of affirmative action policies to ensure they are necessary and effective.