Key Concepts of Learning Disabilities

Why This Matters

Learning disabilities represent a critical intersection of cognitive psychology, neurodevelopment, and educational theory—all areas you'll encounter repeatedly on your psychology exam. When you understand how and why certain cognitive processes break down, you're not just memorizing disorder names; you're demonstrating mastery of concepts like information processing, working memory, executive function, and neurological development. These disabilities also connect directly to broader themes of individual differences, assessment validity, and the nature-nurture debate.

Here's what examiners really want to see: your ability to distinguish between disorders that look similar on the surface but stem from different underlying mechanisms. Can you explain why a student with dyslexia struggles differently than one with auditory processing disorder, even though both have reading difficulties? Don't just memorize labels—know what cognitive process each disability disrupts and how that connects to observable behaviors.

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Language and Reading Processing Disabilities

These disabilities affect how the brain decodes, processes, and produces language. The underlying mechanism involves disruptions in phonological processing, language acquisition pathways, or the connection between auditory input and meaning-making.

Dyslexia

• Phonological processing deficit—the core issue is difficulty connecting sounds to letters, not a vision problem as commonly misconceived
• Affects decoding and fluency rather than intelligence; individuals often develop strong compensatory verbal reasoning skills
• High comorbidity with other LDs makes it a frequent exam topic when discussing differential diagnosis and intervention planning

Specific Language Impairment (SLI)

• Language acquisition failure despite normal cognition—this distinguishes SLI from intellectual disability on exams
• Impacts grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure in both receptive and expressive language domains
• Critical for understanding the modularity of mind—demonstrates that language can be selectively impaired while other cognitive functions remain intact

Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)

• Central auditory nervous system dysfunction—the ears work fine, but the brain struggles to interpret what it hears
• Particularly problematic in noisy environments where filtering competing sounds becomes overwhelming
• Often misdiagnosed as ADHD because inattention symptoms overlap; distinguishing these is a common exam scenario

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Visual-Spatial and Motor Processing Disabilities

These conditions disrupt how the brain interprets visual information or coordinates fine motor output. The mechanism involves dysfunction in visual cortex processing, spatial reasoning networks, or motor planning pathways.

Visual Processing Disorder

• Visual interpretation failure—the eyes see correctly, but the brain struggles to make sense of visual input
• Impacts letter/number recognition and spatial relationships, creating challenges across reading, math, and navigation
• Distinct from vision problems—glasses won't help because the issue is cortical, not optical

Dysgraphia

• Fine motor coordination and written expression deficit—affects both the physical act of writing and organizing thoughts on paper
• Working memory overload occurs when so much cognitive effort goes to handwriting that content quality suffers
• Key accommodation insight: typing often bypasses the motor difficulty while preserving the student's actual knowledge

Nonverbal Learning Disability (NVLD)

• Verbal-nonverbal skill discrepancy—strong vocabulary and reading but weak spatial reasoning and social perception
• Math and visual-spatial tasks are disproportionately difficult despite high verbal intelligence
• Social cognition deficits stem from difficulty reading body language and facial expressions, not lack of social interest

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Mathematical Processing Disabilities

Dyscalculia specifically targets numerical cognition, demonstrating that mathematical reasoning involves distinct neural pathways from language processing.

Dyscalculia

• Number sense impairment—difficulty with quantity estimation, number relationships, and basic arithmetic facts
• Affects procedural and conceptual math understanding, from memorizing multiplication tables to grasping place value
• Real-world functional impacts include struggles with money management, time estimation, and measurement—important for discussing adaptive functioning

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Attention and Executive Function Disabilities

These conditions affect the brain's "control center"—the prefrontal cortex systems responsible for self-regulation, planning, and goal-directed behavior. The mechanism involves dopaminergic pathway dysfunction and underdeveloped executive control networks.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

• Executive function and attention regulation disorder—characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in varying combinations
• Dopamine system involvement explains why stimulant medications paradoxically improve focus
• High comorbidity rate with learning disabilities (30-50%) makes ADHD a frequent topic in discussions of differential diagnosis

Executive Function Disorder

• Planning, organization, and self-monitoring deficits—affects the cognitive processes that coordinate other cognitive processes
• Impacts task initiation and completion even when the individual has the skills to do the work
• Metacognitive awareness is often impaired, meaning students don't recognize when their strategies aren't working

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Developmental and Social Processing Disabilities

These conditions affect broader developmental trajectories, including social cognition and sensory integration. The mechanism involves atypical neural connectivity and development affecting multiple cognitive and behavioral domains.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

• Neurodevelopmental condition affecting social communication and behavioral flexibility—characterized by restricted interests and sensory sensitivities
• Theory of mind deficits create challenges in understanding others' perspectives and intentions
• Highly variable presentation (hence "spectrum") with some individuals having intellectual disabilities while others have above-average intelligence

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. A student reads fluently but cannot follow multi-step verbal instructions, especially in a noisy classroom. Which two disorders should you consider, and what assessment would distinguish between them?

2. Compare and contrast how dyslexia and specific language impairment each demonstrate the concept of modularity in cognitive processing.

3. Which learning disabilities would most directly impair a student's ability to complete a long-term research project, and what specific cognitive processes would be affected?

4. An FRQ describes a student with strong verbal skills but poor math performance and difficulty making friends. Identify the most likely diagnosis and explain what underlying cognitive deficit accounts for all three symptoms.

5. How does the distinction between sensory processing (APD, Visual Processing Disorder) and cognitive processing (Dyslexia, Dyscalculia) inform intervention strategies? Give one specific example.