Fundamental Constants in Physics

Fundamental constants are key values that shape our understanding of the universe. They connect various physical concepts, from the speed of light to atomic structure, and are essential for calculations in AP Physics 2, Mathematical Physics.

1. Speed of light in vacuum (c)

   • Represents the maximum speed at which information and matter can travel in the universe.
   • Fundamental to the theory of relativity, linking space and time.
   • Value: approximately 3.00 x 10^8 m/s, crucial for calculations in electromagnetism and optics.

2. Planck's constant (h)

   • Fundamental to quantum mechanics, relating energy of photons to their frequency.
   • Value: approximately 6.626 x 10^-34 J·s, essential for understanding atomic and subatomic processes.
   • Introduces the concept of quantization of energy levels in systems.

3. Gravitational constant (G)

   • Governs the strength of gravitational attraction between masses.
   • Value: approximately 6.674 x 10^-11 N·m²/kg², critical for calculations in classical mechanics and astrophysics.
   • Essential for understanding gravitational forces in celestial mechanics.

4. Elementary charge (e)

   • The basic unit of electric charge, carried by a single proton or the negative of an electron.
   • Value: approximately 1.602 x 10^-19 C, fundamental in electrostatics and quantum physics.
   • Key to understanding atomic structure and chemical bonding.

5. Boltzmann constant (k)

   • Relates the average kinetic energy of particles in a gas with temperature.
   • Value: approximately 1.381 x 10^-23 J/K, important in statistical mechanics and thermodynamics.
   • Bridges macroscopic and microscopic physical phenomena.

6. Avogadro's number (NA)

   • Defines the number of constituent particles (usually atoms or molecules) in one mole of a substance.
   • Value: approximately 6.022 x 10^23 mol^-1, essential for stoichiometry in chemistry.
   • Facilitates the conversion between atomic scale and macroscopic quantities.

7. Electron mass (me)

   • Mass of a single electron, fundamental in determining atomic structure and behavior.
   • Value: approximately 9.109 x 10^-31 kg, crucial for calculations in quantum mechanics and particle physics.
   • Influences the properties of atoms and the nature of chemical bonds.

8. Proton mass (mp)

   • Mass of a single proton, significantly larger than that of an electron.
   • Value: approximately 1.673 x 10^-27 kg, important for understanding atomic nuclei and isotopes.
   • Plays a key role in defining the mass of atoms and their stability.

9. Permittivity of free space (ε0)

   • Measures the ability of a vacuum to permit electric field lines.
   • Value: approximately 8.854 x 10^-12 F/m, essential in electromagnetism and capacitance calculations.
   • Influences the behavior of electric fields in various media.

10. Permeability of free space (μ0)

    • Measures the ability of a vacuum to support magnetic field lines.
    • Value: approximately 4π x 10^-7 N/A², critical for understanding magnetic fields and inductance.
    • Fundamental in the formulation of Maxwell's equations in electromagnetism.