Forms of Social Stratification

Why This Matters

Social stratification isn't just an abstract concept—it's the framework that explains why some people have more power, wealth, and opportunities than others. When you're tested on this material, you're being asked to demonstrate that you understand how societies create and maintain inequality through systems (like caste or slavery), categories (like class, race, or gender), and processes (like educational sorting or income distribution). These concepts connect directly to foundational sociological ideas about social structure, power, conflict theory, and social mobility.

Don't just memorize definitions here. For each form of stratification, know whether it's ascribed (assigned at birth) or achieved (earned through effort), whether mobility is possible, and how different forms intersect with one another. The most sophisticated exam answers recognize that stratification is multidimensional—a wealthy woman still faces gender stratification, and a highly educated person of color still navigates racial barriers. Keep asking yourself: What type of system is this? Who benefits? How does it reproduce itself?

---

Closed Systems of Stratification

These systems assign social position at birth with little to no opportunity for movement. The key mechanism is ascription—status is inherited rather than earned, and social boundaries are enforced through law, custom, or violence.

Slavery

• Most extreme form of stratification—individuals are legally owned as property, stripped of rights, autonomy, and humanity
• Ascribed and enforced through violence—status passed to children, creating intergenerational bondage with no legitimate path to freedom
• Legacy shapes modern inequality—understanding slavery is essential for analyzing contemporary racial stratification and wealth gaps

Caste System

• Birth determines lifelong social position—individuals inherit their caste from parents with roles, occupations, and marriage partners predetermined
• Endogamy enforces boundaries—marriage within one's caste maintains rigid separation between groups across generations
• Religious and cultural legitimation—often justified through belief systems (particularly in Hindu tradition), making the hierarchy appear natural or divinely ordained

Estate System

• Land ownership defines hierarchy—feudal Europe's three estates (nobility, clergy, commoners) each held distinct legal rights and obligations
• Limited but possible mobility—clergy estate offered rare upward movement; military service or royal favor occasionally elevated commoners
• Reciprocal obligations—unlike slavery, estates involved mutual (though unequal) duties between lords and peasants

---

Open Systems and Modern Stratification

Open systems allow for social mobility based on individual achievement, though structural barriers persist. The key mechanism is achievement—status can theoretically be earned through education, occupation, or talent, though starting position still matters enormously.

Social Class

• Multidimensional ranking—determined by the intersection of income, wealth, education, and occupation rather than any single factor
• Shapes life chances—class position affects health outcomes, educational access, neighborhood quality, and even life expectancy
• More fluid than closed systems—mobility is possible but research shows class origin strongly predicts class destination

Meritocracy

• Ideological framework—the belief that rewards should flow to those with talent and effort, regardless of background
• Legitimates inequality—if success comes from merit, then failure becomes individual rather than structural, justifying existing hierarchies
• Sociological critique—ignores unequal starting points; those with class advantages have more opportunities to demonstrate "merit"

Income Inequality

• Measures distribution gaps—the distance between highest and lowest earners within a society, often tracked through the Gini coefficient
• Consequences compound—inequality affects access to healthcare, education, housing, and political influence, creating feedback loops
• Varies across societies—comparing inequality levels reveals how policy choices and economic systems shape stratification

---

Categorical Stratification

These forms of stratification are based on social categories that intersect with—and often reinforce—class position. The key mechanism is how socially constructed categories become the basis for unequal treatment and resource distribution.

Race and Ethnicity

• Socially constructed categories—race emphasizes perceived physical differences; ethnicity emphasizes cultural heritage and shared identity
• Systemic barriers persist—racial minorities face documented disadvantages in education, employment, housing, healthcare, and criminal justice
• Intersects with class—racial stratification and class stratification reinforce each other, creating compounded disadvantage

Gender

• Unequal distribution of power and resources—gender stratification manifests in wage gaps, underrepresentation in leadership, and unequal domestic labor
• Socially constructed expectations—gender roles assign different behaviors, occupations, and opportunities based on perceived gender identity
• Institutional and interpersonal—operates through both formal structures (laws, policies) and everyday interactions and norms

Age

• Life course shapes opportunities—different age groups face distinct advantages and disadvantages (youth unemployment, elder poverty, ageism in hiring)
• Socially defined categories—what counts as "old" or "young" varies across cultures and historical periods
• Intersects with other stratification—age-based disadvantages compound with class, race, and gender (elderly women of color face multiple barriers)

---

Pathways and Processes

These factors represent mechanisms through which stratification is created, maintained, or potentially disrupted. The key insight is that stratification isn't static—it's reproduced through ongoing social processes.

Educational Attainment

• Primary mobility mechanism—in open systems, education is the main legitimate pathway for changing class position
• Reproduces inequality—access to quality education varies by class, race, and geography, meaning education often confirms rather than disrupts existing hierarchies
• Credentialism—employers use educational credentials as screening devices, making degrees necessary even when job skills don't require them

---

Quick Reference Table

---

Self-Check Questions

1. What do slavery, caste, and estate systems have in common, and what key feature distinguishes estate systems from the other two?

2. A student argues that America is a true meritocracy because anyone can succeed through hard work. Using the concept of educational attainment, explain why a sociologist might challenge this claim.

3. Compare and contrast race and gender as forms of stratification—what mechanisms do they share, and how do they operate differently?

4. If an FRQ asks you to explain why class position tends to persist across generations in supposedly "open" societies, which three concepts from this list would you use, and why?

5. How does the concept of intersectionality help explain why age stratification might affect an elderly Black woman differently than an elderly white man?