Forms of Government

Why This Matters

In Comparative Politics, you're not just memorizing a list of government types—you're being tested on your ability to analyze how power is distributed, legitimized, and exercised across different political systems. The AP exam will ask you to compare regimes, explain why certain structures produce specific outcomes, and evaluate how institutions shape political behavior. Understanding forms of government means grasping the underlying logic of who rules, how they rule, and what limits (if any) exist on their power.

These concepts appear throughout the course, from analyzing the six AP Comparative Politics countries to answering FRQs about regime change, democratic transitions, and institutional design. Don't just memorize that "democracy means elections"—know why democracies vary so much in practice, how authoritarian regimes maintain control differently, and what distinguishes a federation from a unitary state. When you can explain the mechanisms behind each system, you'll nail both multiple-choice comparisons and free-response analysis.

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Democratic Systems: Power from the People

Democracies derive legitimacy from popular consent, but they vary dramatically in how that consent is channeled into governance. The key mechanism is accountability—leaders must answer to citizens, typically through elections, constitutional limits, and protected civil liberties.

Democracy

• Popular sovereignty—power flows from citizens through free, fair, and competitive elections that determine leadership
• Political pluralism allows multiple parties, interest groups, and viewpoints to compete for influence and shape policy
• Can be direct or representative—most modern democracies are representative, where elected officials make decisions on behalf of constituents

Republic

• Public accountability defines republics—the state exists for citizens, not rulers, and officials govern according to constitutional law
• Rule of law constrains government power, meaning even leaders must follow established legal procedures
• Elected representatives are answerable to voters, distinguishing republics from monarchies where power is inherited

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Authoritarian Systems: Concentrated Power, Limited Accountability

Authoritarian regimes share a core feature: power is concentrated in leaders or elites who face few institutional checks and limited accountability to citizens. What varies is how extreme the control is and what justifies the regime's authority.

Autocracy

• Single leader or small group holds power with minimal political pluralism or competition
• Citizens excluded from meaningful political decision-making; elections (if held) are not genuinely competitive
• Absence of civil liberties—free press, assembly, and opposition are typically suppressed or controlled

Authoritarianism

• Power concentrated in a leader or elite who are not constitutionally accountable to the public
• Limited political freedoms—opposition exists but is constrained through legal restrictions, harassment, or selective repression
• Flexible form—can operate within monarchies, military regimes, or single-party states, making it a broad analytical category

Dictatorship

• Absolute power held by a single leader or party, often maintained through force, coercion, or manipulation of institutions
• Political opposition suppressed—dissent is criminalized, and independent organizations are banned or co-opted
• Can emerge from various contexts—military coups, failed democracies, or revolutionary movements that consolidate power

Totalitarianism

• State control of all life—an extreme form where government seeks to dominate public and private spheres, including culture, economy, and personal beliefs
• Single-party rule with pervasive propaganda, mass surveillance, and ideological conformity demands
• Terror as a tool—regimes use systematic violence and fear to eliminate dissent entirely, not just suppress it

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Sources of Legitimacy: What Justifies Rule?

Different regimes claim authority through different mechanisms—hereditary right, divine mandate, ideological mission, or popular consent. Understanding these legitimacy claims helps explain regime stability and citizen compliance.

Monarchy

• Hereditary rule—a single monarch governs, typically for life, with succession based on family lineage
• Absolute vs. constitutional—absolute monarchs hold near-total power, while constitutional monarchs are limited by law and often serve ceremonial roles
• Symbolic legitimacy—monarchies often represent national unity, tradition, and historical continuity, even when politically powerless

Theocracy

• Religious authority governs—political leaders are religious figures, and laws derive from sacred texts or divine interpretation
• Divine legitimacy—the regime justifies its power through religious mandate, not popular consent or constitutional law
• Limited political rights—citizens may participate in some institutions, but ultimate authority rests with religious doctrine (Iran's Guardian Council is a key AP example)

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Ideological Regimes: Politics as Total Project

Some governments are defined less by their structure than by their ideological mission—a comprehensive worldview that shapes all policy and justifies state control. These regimes often blur the line between government type and economic system.

Communism

• Classless society is the goal—all property publicly owned, wealth distributed according to need, and class distinctions eliminated
• State controls production—the government directs the economy, eliminating private enterprise in theory (though practice varies)
• Often authoritarian in practice—communist regimes historically suppressed dissent and political pluralism to maintain ideological purity (USSR, Maoist China)

Fascism

• Ultranationalist authoritarianism—the state is supreme, led by a dictatorial figure who embodies national will
• Suppression of opposition—militarism, propaganda, and state terror enforce conformity; individual rights are subordinated to national goals
• State-directed economy—not full state ownership, but government controls economic activity to serve national power and rejuvenation

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Institutional Design: How Power Is Organized

Beyond who rules, comparative politics examines how institutions structure decision-making. These categories describe the relationship between executive and legislative branches and between central and regional governments.

Presidential System

• Separate election of the president, who serves as both head of state and head of government, independent of the legislature
• Separation of powers—executive, legislative, and judicial branches operate with distinct authorities and checks on each other
• Risk of gridlock—when different parties control branches, policy stalemates can occur (a frequent AP comparison point with parliamentary systems)

Parliamentary System

• Executive depends on legislature—the prime minister is typically a member of parliament and requires legislative confidence to govern
• Fusion of powers—the executive emerges from the majority party or coalition, creating closer alignment between branches
• Vote of no confidence can remove the government, encouraging coalition-building and responsiveness but potentially causing instability in fragmented parliaments

Federalism

• Divided sovereignty—power is constitutionally split between a central government and regional units (states, provinces, länder)
• Regional autonomy allows local governance tailored to diverse populations while maintaining national unity on shared issues
• Accommodates diversity—federalism is often adopted in large or ethnically diverse states to manage competing interests (Russia, Nigeria, Mexico)

Unitary State

• Centralized power—a single national government holds authority; regional governments exist at the center's discretion
• Uniform policy—laws and administration are consistent across the territory, simplifying governance but potentially ignoring local needs
• Central can revoke local powers—unlike federalism, subnational authority is delegated, not constitutionally protected (UK, China, Iran)

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two systems both concentrate power but differ in how extensively the state controls citizens' lives? Explain the key distinction between them.

2. Compare presidential and parliamentary systems: How does the relationship between executive and legislature differ, and what are the political consequences of each design?

3. If an FRQ asks you to explain how a regime maintains legitimacy without democratic elections, which three government types would provide the strongest examples? What legitimacy source does each claim?

4. Both federalism and democracy can accommodate diverse populations. How do they achieve this differently, and why might a country adopt one, the other, or both?

5. Contrast communism and fascism as ideological regimes: What do they share as governance systems, and what fundamental goals distinguish them?