Figures of Speech

Why This Matters

Figures of speech aren't just decorative flourishes—they're the core mechanics of how language creates meaning beyond literal definition. You're being tested on your ability to identify, distinguish, and analyze how writers manipulate language for effect. Understanding these devices means recognizing comparison techniques, sound patterns, substitution strategies, and contradiction for emphasis—skills that show up repeatedly in multiple-choice identification questions and rhetorical analysis essays.

Don't fall into the trap of memorizing definitions in isolation. The real exam challenge is distinguishing between similar figures (simile vs. metaphor, metonymy vs. synecdoche) and explaining why a writer chose one device over another. Know what effect each figure creates, and you'll be ready to tackle any passage they throw at you.

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Comparison Figures: Creating Meaning Through Likeness

These figures work by linking two unlike things, forcing readers to see familiar concepts in new ways. The mechanism is cognitive association—your brain transfers qualities from one thing to another, deepening understanding.

Simile

• Uses "like" or "as" to compare two unlike things—the explicit comparison signals keep the two items distinct
• Creates accessible imagery by connecting abstract or unfamiliar concepts to concrete, familiar ones
• Appears frequently in everyday speech ("busy as a bee") and literary contexts alike, making it one of the most testable figures

Metaphor

• States that one thing IS another without using "like" or "as," creating a more direct identification
• Implies deeper connection between tenor (subject) and vehicle (what it's compared to)
• Builds extended meaning when sustained throughout a passage—watch for these in poetry analysis

Personification

• Gives human qualities to non-human entities—objects, animals, or abstract concepts gain agency and emotion
• Creates emotional resonance by making the unfamiliar relatable and alive
• Animates abstract ideas like death, love, or time, allowing writers to dramatize concepts

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Sound Devices: Creating Rhythm and Emphasis

Sound figures manipulate the auditory qualities of language. They work through repetition patterns—whether of consonants, vowels, or entire sound structures—to create musicality, memorability, and emphasis.

Alliteration

• Repeats initial consonant sounds in a sequence of words ("Peter Piper picked")
• Creates rhythm and cohesion that makes phrases memorable and punchy
• Signals intentionality in formal writing—when you spot it, the writer is drawing attention to that phrase

Assonance

• Repeats vowel sounds within nearby words—"the rain in Spain" demonstrates long "a" repetition
• Creates internal musicality that's subtler than alliteration but equally effective
• Establishes mood through sound quality—long vowels slow pace; short vowels quicken it

Consonance

• Repeats consonant sounds anywhere in words, not just at the beginning ("pitter-patter")
• Adds texture and cohesion to prose and poetry without the obviousness of alliteration
• Works with assonance to create full sonic patterns—look for both together in poetry analysis

Onomatopoeia

• Words that phonetically imitate their meaning—"buzz," "crash," "whisper"
• Creates immediate sensory experience by making readers "hear" the action
• Bridges sound and meaning in a way no other figure does—the form IS the content

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Substitution Figures: Replacing for Effect

These figures work by substituting one term for another based on association or relationship. They create compression—packing complex meaning into fewer words—and reveal how language connects concepts.

Metonymy

• Substitutes an associated term for the thing itself—"the Crown" for monarchy, "the pen" for writing
• Creates efficient, vivid expression by invoking a whole concept through one concrete detail
• Appears constantly in political and cultural discourse—"Wall Street," "Hollywood," "the White House"

Synecdoche

• Uses a part to represent the whole (or vice versa)—"all hands on deck" means all sailors
• Creates specificity and vividness by zooming in on a meaningful detail
• Reveals what matters about the whole through the part chosen—"wheels" for car emphasizes mobility

Euphemism

• Substitutes mild language for harsh or taboo terms—"passed away" for died, "let go" for fired
• Softens uncomfortable topics while still communicating meaning
• Reveals cultural values about what society considers unspeakable or impolite

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Exaggeration and Contradiction: Emphasis Through Extremes

These figures create meaning through tension between what's said and what's meant or between opposing ideas held together. They force readers to think beyond surface meaning.

Hyperbole

• Deliberate exaggeration not meant literally—"I've told you a million times"
• Creates emphasis and emotional intensity by pushing beyond realistic bounds
• Appears in everyday speech and literature for both comic and dramatic effect

Oxymoron

• Combines contradictory terms in a single phrase—"deafening silence," "cruel kindness"
• Creates paradoxical meaning that captures complexity ordinary language can't
• Forces readers to reconcile opposites, deepening engagement with the concept

Paradox

• A statement that seems contradictory but reveals deeper truth—"less is more"
• Challenges conventional thinking by exposing limitations of surface logic
• Requires interpretation to understand—the apparent contradiction IS the point

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Irony and Direct Address: Playing with Expectation

These figures manipulate the relationship between speaker, audience, and meaning. They create layers—what's said versus what's meant, who's addressed versus who's listening.

Irony

• Creates contrast between expectation and reality—verbal, situational, or dramatic forms
• Verbal irony says the opposite of what's meant; dramatic irony gives audiences knowledge characters lack
• Requires reader awareness to function—identifying irony demonstrates sophisticated reading

Apostrophe

• Directly addresses absent persons, abstractions, or objects—"O Death, where is thy sting?"
• Creates emotional intensity by treating the addressee as present and capable of response
• Signals heightened emotion in poetry and drama—often marks climactic moments

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. A writer describes corporate executives as "suits." Is this metonymy or synecdoche? What's the relationship between the term and what it represents?

2. Which two sound devices both involve repetition but differ in what sounds they repeat and where? Give an example of each.

3. Compare and contrast oxymoron and paradox. How would you explain the difference to a classmate using "bittersweet" and "the only way to gain freedom is to surrender"?

4. If an FRQ asks you to analyze how a poet creates emotional intensity, which three figures from this guide would be your strongest examples, and why?

5. A character says "What lovely weather!" during a thunderstorm. Identify the figure of speech, name its specific type, and explain what effect it creates that a literal complaint would not.