Ethical Issues in Computing

Why This Matters

Computing innovations don't exist in a vacuum—they reshape societies, economies, and individual lives in ways that creators often can't predict. The AP exam tests your ability to analyze these impacts critically, recognizing that the same innovation can be both beneficial and harmful depending on context, perspective, and implementation. You're being tested on your understanding of legal frameworks, algorithmic accountability, privacy rights, and the digital divide—not just what these concepts mean, but how they play out in real-world scenarios.

When you encounter ethical issues on the exam, think beyond simple "good vs. bad" framings. The College Board wants you to demonstrate nuanced reasoning: How do intellectual property protections balance creator rights against public access? Why might algorithmic bias persist even when developers have good intentions? Don't just memorize definitions—know what principle each issue illustrates and be ready to apply that understanding to unfamiliar examples.

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Privacy and Data Rights

Personal data has become one of the most valuable commodities in the digital economy, creating tension between innovation and individual rights. The core principle here is informed consent—users should understand and control how their information is collected, used, and shared.

Privacy and Data Protection

• Personal data collection raises fundamental questions about consent and ownership—companies often gather information without users fully understanding the scope or purpose
• Data breaches can lead to identity theft, financial loss, and permanent exposure of sensitive information, demonstrating why security and privacy are interconnected
• GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) represents a legal framework requiring explicit consent and giving users rights over their data—a common exam reference point

Surveillance and Government Monitoring

• Government surveillance programs can infringe on privacy rights and civil liberties, even when justified by national security concerns
• Continuous monitoring devices—from smart speakers to location tracking—blur the line between convenience and surveillance capitalism
• Transparency and accountability in surveillance practices are essential safeguards; without them, citizens cannot meaningfully consent to monitoring

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Algorithmic Accountability

Algorithms increasingly make decisions that affect people's lives—from loan approvals to content recommendations. The key insight is that algorithms reflect the biases present in their training data and the assumptions of their creators, even when no one intends harm.

Algorithmic Bias and Fairness

• Biased training data causes algorithms to perpetuate and amplify existing discrimination—if historical hiring data favored certain groups, an AI trained on it will too
• Fairness across demographics requires intentional design; without it, automated systems can produce discriminatory outcomes in housing, employment, and criminal justice
• Algorithmic transparency enables auditing and accountability—users and regulators need to understand how decisions are made to challenge unfair ones

Artificial Intelligence Ethics

• Human oversight must be maintained in AI systems to catch errors and prevent harmful autonomous decisions
• Accountability gaps emerge when AI makes consequential decisions—who is responsible when an algorithm denies someone a loan or medical treatment?
• Explainable AI (XAI) addresses the "black box" problem by making algorithmic reasoning interpretable to humans, supporting both trust and legal compliance

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Intellectual Property and Access

Digital technology makes copying and sharing trivially easy, creating unprecedented challenges for protecting creators while ensuring public access to knowledge. The tension here is between incentivizing innovation through ownership rights and enabling the free flow of information that drives further innovation.

Intellectual Property and Copyright

• Copyright law protects creators' rights to control reproduction and distribution of their work, encouraging investment in creative and technical innovation
• Digital infringement occurs easily through copying, downloading, and sharing—the same features that make the internet powerful also make enforcement difficult
• Fair use doctrine allows limited use of copyrighted material for education, commentary, and criticism, creating important exceptions to exclusive rights

Open Source and Creative Commons

• Creative Commons licenses (like CC BY and CC BY-SA) enable creators to grant specific permissions while retaining some rights—a middle ground between full copyright and public domain
• Open source licenses (GPL, MIT, Apache) allow software to be freely used, modified, and shared, accelerating innovation through collaboration
• Open access has democratized knowledge sharing, enabling broad access to research and creative works that would otherwise be restricted

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Digital Equity and Inclusion

Technology's benefits aren't distributed equally, and computing innovations can either bridge or widen existing social gaps. The underlying principle is that access to technology increasingly determines access to opportunity—in education, employment, healthcare, and civic participation.

Digital Divide and Accessibility

• Digital divide refers to unequal access to computing devices, reliable internet, and digital literacy—often correlated with income, geography, and age
• Accessibility (ADA compliance) ensures technology is usable by people with disabilities through features like screen readers, captions, and alternative input methods
• Broadband access inequality limits participation in remote education, telehealth, and remote work, compounding existing disadvantages for underserved communities

Automation and Job Displacement

• Automation increases efficiency but displaces workers whose tasks can be performed by machines—a dual-use effect where the same innovation helps some and harms others
• Skills adaptation becomes necessary as job markets shift; workers need support to transition to roles that complement rather than compete with automation
• Corporate responsibility includes ethical obligations to support displaced workers through retraining, severance, and transition assistance

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Online Behavior and Social Impact

The internet has transformed how people communicate, organize, and form opinions, creating new categories of harm and benefit that didn't exist before. The key concept is emergent behavior—large-scale effects that arise from millions of individual interactions in ways no one designed or predicted.

Social Media and Online Behavior

• Misinformation and filter bubbles emerge when algorithms optimize for engagement rather than accuracy, amplifying sensational or divisive content
• Privacy settings and data sharing determine how much control users have over their information—defaults often favor platforms over users
• Real-world consequences of online behavior include cyberbullying, harassment, and reputational damage that can follow people offline

Environmental Impact of Technology

• E-waste and resource depletion result from rapid device obsolescence and the extraction of rare earth minerals for electronics manufacturing
• Energy consumption of data centers, cryptocurrency mining, and always-on devices contributes significantly to carbon emissions
• Sustainable design practices can mitigate harm through longer device lifespans, renewable energy use, and responsible recycling programs

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Cybersecurity and Trust

Digital systems are only as valuable as they are trustworthy, and security vulnerabilities can undermine both individual safety and societal confidence in technology. The principle here is that security is not just a technical problem but an ethical obligation—developers have responsibility to anticipate and mitigate threats.

Cybersecurity and Hacking

• Unauthorized access to systems can result in financial theft, data exposure, and disruption of critical infrastructure like hospitals and power grids
• Vulnerability assessment is essential for developing effective security protocols—understanding how systems can be attacked enables better defenses
• Responsible disclosure practices balance the need to warn users about vulnerabilities against the risk of enabling malicious actors

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Compare and contrast algorithmic bias and the digital divide. How do both create inequitable outcomes, and what distinguishes their causes?

2. Which two ethical issues both involve tension between protecting individual rights and enabling broader access or security? Explain the tradeoff each represents.

3. A social media platform's recommendation algorithm increases user engagement but also amplifies misinformation. Using the concept of emergent behavior, explain why this outcome might occur even if developers didn't intend it.

4. How do Creative Commons licenses and traditional copyright represent different approaches to the same underlying tension in intellectual property? When might a creator choose each option?

5. An FRQ asks you to evaluate a computing innovation's effects on different stakeholders. Using automation as your example, identify one beneficial effect and one harmful effect, and explain how the same feature of the innovation produces both outcomes.