Components of Language

Why This Matters

Language is one of the most complex cognitive abilities humans possess, and the AP Psychology exam expects you to understand not just what language is, but how it works at multiple levels. You're being tested on your ability to distinguish between the building blocks of language (phonemes, morphemes) and the rule systems that govern them (phonology, morphology, syntax). These distinctions matter because they connect to broader themes in cognition—how we process information, store knowledge in memory, and use context to interpret meaning.

The components of language also tie directly to developmental psychology (how children acquire language), neuroscience (which brain regions handle different aspects of language), and social psychology (how we use language in context). Don't just memorize definitions—know what level of language each component operates on, whether it deals with sound, meaning, structure, or social use, and how these pieces work together to enable communication.

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Sound-Based Components

Language begins with sound. These components focus on the basic acoustic units of language and the rules that govern how those sounds function within a linguistic system.

Phonemes

• Smallest units of sound that distinguish meaning—changing one phoneme changes the word entirely (e.g., "bat" vs. "pat")
• Language-specific inventories mean English has about 44 phonemes while other languages may have far fewer or more
• Foundation for language development—phonemic awareness predicts reading success and is a key concept in developmental psychology

Phonology

• Rule system governing sound patterns—determines which sound combinations are permissible in a language
• Explains why "blick" sounds like a possible English word but "bnick" doesn't, even though neither is real
• Connects to speech perception research—how we categorize continuous sound streams into discrete units

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Meaning-Based Components

These components deal with how language carries meaning, from the smallest meaningful units to the mental storehouse of words we draw upon.

Morphemes

• Smallest units of meaning—can be whole words ("dog") or word parts ("-ed" for past tense)
• Free morphemes stand alone as words; bound morphemes must attach to other morphemes (prefixes, suffixes)
• Critical for vocabulary expansion—understanding morphemes helps decode unfamiliar words through their parts

Semantics

• Study of meaning in language—examines how words, phrases, and sentences convey information
• Context shapes interpretation—the word "bank" means different things near a river versus near an ATM
• Connects to cognition and thought—debates about whether language shapes thinking (linguistic relativity) fall under semantic research

Lexicon

• Mental dictionary containing all known words—includes pronunciation, meaning, and grammatical information
• Organized for rapid retrieval—explains phenomena like tip-of-the-tongue states when access temporarily fails
• Grows throughout life—average adult English speaker knows 20,000–35,000 words

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Structural Components

These components govern how words combine into larger units, providing the architectural rules that make complex communication possible.

Syntax

• Rules governing sentence structure and word order—determines that "Dog bites man" differs from "Man bites dog"
• Varies across languages—English relies heavily on word order while other languages use inflections
• Enables infinite creativity—finite rules generate unlimited novel sentences (a key insight from Chomsky)

Grammar

• Comprehensive rule system encompassing syntax, morphology, and phonology—the complete framework for language use
• Includes both prescriptive rules (what teachers say is "correct") and descriptive rules (how people actually speak)
• Universal grammar theory suggests humans are born with innate grammatical knowledge—major AP concept

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Context and Social Use Components

Language doesn't exist in a vacuum. These components address how meaning depends on context, social situations, and extended communication.

Pragmatics

• How context shapes language interpretation—explains why "Can you pass the salt?" is a request, not a question about ability
• Includes speaker intent and social conventions—understanding sarcasm, politeness, and implied meaning
• Relies on theory of mind—must infer what others know and intend, connecting to social cognition

Discourse

• Language beyond the sentence level—encompasses conversations, narratives, essays, and extended communication
• Requires coherence and cohesion—ideas must connect logically and linguistically across sentences
• Shaped by social and cultural factors—different contexts demand different discourse styles (academic vs. casual)

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. A child learning to read struggles to hear the difference between "bat" and "pat." Which component of language is underdeveloped, and why does this matter for literacy?

2. Compare and contrast morphemes and phonemes—what does each represent, and how do they differ in what they contribute to language?

3. If someone says "Nice weather we're having" during a thunderstorm, which component of language must you use to understand they're being sarcastic?

4. An FRQ asks you to explain how language enables infinite creativity from finite rules. Which two components would you discuss, and what would you say about each?

5. A patient with brain damage can understand individual words but cannot comprehend or produce grammatically correct sentences. Which components of language are likely impaired versus preserved?