Causes of the Russian Revolution

Why This Matters

The Russian Revolution wasn't a single event—it was a cascade of failures, crises, and radical responses that transformed one of Europe's oldest autocracies into the world's first communist state. You're being tested on how structural weaknesses, war, and political miscalculation combined to produce revolutionary change. Understanding these causes means grasping the broader themes of the course: the crisis of traditional authority, the social costs of industrialization, and how total war destabilized entire political systems.

Don't just memorize a timeline of events. Know what each cause illustrates: Was it a long-term structural problem or a short-term trigger? Did it erode the regime's legitimacy, its capacity to govern, or both? When an FRQ asks you to analyze the causes of political revolution, the Russian case gives you a textbook example of how economic grievances, military defeat, and ideological alternatives converge to overthrow a regime that refused to adapt.

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Structural Weaknesses: The Long-Term Foundations of Crisis

Revolutions rarely emerge from nowhere—they build on decades of unresolved tensions. Russia's political and economic systems were fundamentally mismatched with the demands of modern governance, creating grievances that festered for generations.

Autocratic Rule of Tsar Nicholas II

• Absolute monarchy without representative institutions—Nicholas II governed as an autocrat while other European powers had adopted constitutional reforms, leaving Russians with no legitimate outlet for political grievances
• Personal rigidity compounded systemic problems—the Tsar genuinely believed in divine-right monarchy and resisted even modest reforms that might have preserved the dynasty
• Cross-class alienation developed as liberals, workers, and peasants all found themselves excluded from political participation, uniting disparate groups against the regime

Economic Backwardness and Industrialization Challenges

• Late industrialization created acute social dislocation—Russia industrialized rapidly in the 1890s-1900s, concentrating workers in cities without adequate housing, services, or political rights
• Dual economy persisted as modern factories operated alongside inefficient mir (village commune) agriculture, leaving the majority of Russians in rural poverty
• State-directed development meant the government bore direct blame for economic hardships, unlike in Western Europe where private capital absorbed more criticism

Widespread Poverty and Poor Working Conditions

• Industrial workers faced 11-14 hour days with minimal wages and no legal right to strike or organize, creating a volatile urban proletariat
• Peasant land hunger remained unresolved as the 1861 emancipation left former serfs with inadequate plots and crushing redemption payments
• Visible inequality between the aristocratic elite and the impoverished masses delegitimized the social order and made radical ideologies appealing

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Catalytic Events: The 1905 Dress Rehearsal

The 1905 Revolution revealed the regime's fragility and established patterns—protest, repression, inadequate reform—that would repeat in 1917. These events didn't overthrow the Tsar, but they shattered his image and radicalized opposition movements.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

• Humiliating military defeat by an Asian power destroyed the myth of Russian imperial strength and exposed military incompetence
• "Small victorious war" backfired—government officials had hoped the war would unite the country, but defeat intensified criticism of the regime
• Resource diversion worsened domestic conditions as the war drained finances and attention from pressing social problems

Bloody Sunday (1905)

• Massacre of peaceful petitioners—on January 22, 1905, troops fired on workers marching to present grievances to the Tsar, killing hundreds
• Psychological turning point shattered the traditional image of the Tsar as the people's protector (batiushka, or "little father")
• Sparked nationwide unrest including strikes, peasant uprisings, and military mutinies that forced the regime to offer concessions

1905 Russian Revolution

• October Manifesto promised reform—the Tsar conceded civil liberties and a legislative assembly (Duma) to end the crisis
• Reforms proved hollow as Nicholas II retained veto power and repeatedly dissolved uncooperative Dumas, demonstrating his commitment to autocracy
• Revolutionary movements survived and learned organizational lessons, while moderates lost faith in gradual reform

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The War Crisis: Total War as Revolutionary Accelerant

World War I didn't cause the revolution—it made existing problems unsurvivable. The strain of total war exposed every weakness in the Russian system and created the immediate conditions for regime collapse.

World War I and Its Impact on Russia

• Catastrophic military losses—by 1917, Russia had suffered over 2 million dead and 5 million wounded, demoralizing soldiers and civilians alike
• Economic mobilization failed as the transportation system collapsed, factories couldn't produce enough munitions, and the government proved incapable of coordinating the war effort
• Tsar's personal command of the army after 1915 made him directly responsible for military failures and left the incompetent Tsarina Alexandra in charge of domestic affairs

Food Shortages and Inflation

• Urban food crisis emerged as the war disrupted agricultural production and rail transport prioritized military supplies over civilian needs
• Inflation devastated workers—prices rose faster than wages, reducing real purchasing power and making basic survival a daily struggle
• Bread lines became sites of radicalization where women and workers shared grievances and organized protests

Rasputin's Influence on the Royal Family

• Symbolic corruption—Grigori Rasputin's influence over the Tsarina (who believed he could heal her hemophiliac son) became a lightning rod for criticism of the regime
• Government dysfunction worsened as Rasputin allegedly influenced ministerial appointments, leading to a revolving door of incompetent officials
• Assassination in December 1916 by nobles desperate to save the monarchy came too late to repair the dynasty's reputation

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Revolutionary Outcomes: From Monarchy to Bolshevism

The February Revolution removed the Tsar; the October Revolution determined what would replace him. Understanding both revolutions—and why the Provisional Government failed between them—is essential for explaining how Russia became a communist state.

February Revolution (1917)

• Spontaneous uprising in Petrograd—strikes and bread riots in late February escalated when soldiers refused orders to suppress protesters
• Tsar's abdication on March 2 ended 300 years of Romanov rule with surprising speed, as even conservative elites abandoned Nicholas II
• Dual power emerged as the Provisional Government shared authority with the Petrograd Soviet (council) of workers and soldiers, creating institutional confusion

Provisional Government's Failures

• Continued the war despite popular exhaustion, believing Russia was obligated to its allies and hoping victory would legitimize the new government
• Postponed land reform until a future Constituent Assembly could address it legally, frustrating peasants who wanted immediate redistribution
• Lacked democratic legitimacy—the government was never elected and ruled by decree, making it vulnerable to accusations of illegitimacy

Bolshevik Party and Vladimir Lenin's Leadership

• "Peace, Land, and Bread" slogan directly addressed what the Provisional Government refused to deliver, giving the Bolsheviks a clear popular message
• Lenin's April Theses rejected cooperation with the Provisional Government and called for "all power to the Soviets," positioning the Bolsheviks as the radical alternative
• Disciplined party organization allowed the Bolsheviks to coordinate action when the moment came, unlike the more diffuse socialist parties

October Revolution (1917)

• Coordinated seizure of power—on October 25-26, Bolshevik Red Guards occupied key buildings in Petrograd with minimal resistance
• Provisional Government collapsed as it had no loyal military forces willing to defend it, demonstrating how thoroughly it had lost support
• Immediate decrees on peace and land fulfilled Bolshevik promises and consolidated support among soldiers and peasants, though civil war would follow

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two causes best illustrate long-term structural problems versus short-term triggers? How would you distinguish between them in an FRQ?

2. Compare the significance of Bloody Sunday (1905) and the February Revolution (1917)—what did each event destroy, and what did each leave unresolved?

3. Why did the Provisional Government fail to consolidate power between February and October 1917? Identify at least two specific policy decisions that undermined its legitimacy.

4. How did World War I transform existing grievances into revolutionary conditions? Use at least two specific examples (military, economic, or political).

5. Compare and contrast the February and October Revolutions in terms of who participated, what they opposed, and what kind of government resulted. Why is this distinction important for understanding the course of Russian history?