Intro to International Relations
Table of Contents
🏴☠️intro to international relations review
1.2 Historical Evolution of the International System
Citation:MLA
The international system has evolved dramatically since the 17th century. From the Westphalian system to today's complex global order, key events have shaped how nations interact. Wars, alliances, and technological advances have all played crucial roles in this transformation.
The 20th century saw major shifts in global power dynamics. World wars redrew maps and birthed new institutions. The Cold War's ideological struggle and decolonization reshaped international relations. Today's multipolar world faces new challenges in security, economics, and governance.
Pre-20th Century International System
Establishment of the Westphalian System
- Peace of Westphalia in 1648 established modern state system
- Introduced principles of territorial integrity and non-interference
- Recognized sovereignty of individual states within their borders
- Reduced influence of the Holy Roman Empire and the Catholic Church
- Created foundation for international law and diplomacy
- Established concept of raison d'état (national interest) as guiding principle
- Prioritized state interests over religious or dynastic considerations
- Introduced balance of power as a mechanism for maintaining stability
Balance of Power and European Diplomacy
- Balance of power emerged as key principle in international relations
- Aimed to prevent any single state from dominating Europe
- Involved forming alliances to counterbalance powerful states
- Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) exemplified balance of power in action
- Redrew European borders after Napoleonic Wars
- Established Concert of Europe to maintain stability
- Metternich System promoted conservative order and suppressed nationalist movements
- Crimean War (1853-1856) disrupted balance, leading to new alliances
- Bismarckian alliances in late 19th century maintained equilibrium in Europe
Age of Imperialism and Global Expansion
- European powers expanded their influence globally through colonization
- Driven by economic, political, and ideological motivations
- Berlin Conference (1884-1885) formalized "Scramble for Africa"
- Established rules for colonial acquisition and division of territories
- Led to creation of vast empires (British, French, Dutch)
- Introduced concepts of spheres of influence and extraterritoriality
- Resulted in unequal treaties with non-European powers (China, Japan)
- Sparked technological advancements in transportation and communication
- Steamships and telegraphs facilitated global connections
- Created global economic system based on resource extraction and trade imbalances
20th Century Conflicts and Changes
World Wars and Their Impact
- World War I (1914-1918) shattered existing balance of power
- Treaty of Versailles (1919) redrew borders and imposed reparations on Germany
- League of Nations established as first global intergovernmental organization
- Aimed to prevent future conflicts through collective security
- World War II (1939-1945) reshaped global power dynamics
- Yalta Conference (1945) divided Europe into spheres of influence
- United Nations founded to maintain international peace and security
- Nuremberg Trials established precedent for international criminal law
- Nuclear weapons introduced new dimension to international relations
- Mutual Assured Destruction became deterrence strategy
Cold War Era and Bipolar World Order
- United States and Soviet Union emerged as superpowers
- Ideological conflict between capitalism and communism
- Formation of military alliances (NATO, Warsaw Pact)
- Proxy wars fought in developing countries (Vietnam, Korea, Afghanistan)
- Arms race and nuclear proliferation heightened global tensions
- Space race symbolized technological competition between superpowers
- Berlin Wall became physical manifestation of Iron Curtain
- Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) brought world to brink of nuclear war
- Détente period in 1970s eased tensions temporarily
- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) aimed to control nuclear arsenals
Decolonization and Emergence of New States
- Wave of independence movements swept former colonies
- Suez Crisis (1956) marked decline of European colonial powers
- Non-Aligned Movement formed by newly independent states
- Bandung Conference (1955) promoted Afro-Asian solidarity
- Pan-Africanism influenced decolonization in Africa
- Apartheid in South Africa became focus of international condemnation
- Economic challenges faced by newly independent states
- Dependency theory explained persistent underdevelopment
- Cold War rivalries influenced post-colonial state formation
- United Nations expanded to include newly independent countries
Post-Cold War International Order
Emergence of the Post-Cold War Era
- Fall of Berlin Wall (1989) symbolized end of Cold War
- Dissolution of Soviet Union (1991) ended bipolar world order
- United States emerged as sole superpower (unipolar moment)
- Fukuyama's "End of History" thesis proposed triumph of liberal democracy
- Huntington's "Clash of Civilizations" predicted cultural conflicts
- Globalization accelerated economic and cultural interconnectedness
- Rise of non-state actors (multinational corporations, NGOs) in global affairs
- Information revolution transformed international communication
- Emergence of new security threats (terrorism, cyber warfare)
United Nations and Global Governance
- United Nations took on expanded peacekeeping role
- Security Council dynamics shifted without Cold War vetoes
- Humanitarian interventions became more frequent (Somalia, Bosnia)
- Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine developed
- Millennium Development Goals set targets for global development
- International Criminal Court established to prosecute war crimes
- UN faced challenges in addressing climate change and environmental issues
- Reforms proposed to make Security Council more representative
- Peacekeeping operations evolved to include nation-building components
- UN agencies (WHO, UNHCR) played crucial roles in global crises
Bretton Woods System and Global Economic Order
- Bretton Woods institutions (IMF, World Bank) continued to shape global economy
- Shift from fixed to floating exchange rates in 1970s
- World Trade Organization (WTO) replaced GATT in 1995
- Regional economic integration increased (EU, NAFTA, ASEAN)
- Asian Financial Crisis (1997) highlighted interconnectedness of global markets
- Rise of emerging economies (BRICS) challenged Western economic dominance
- Global Financial Crisis (2008) led to reassessment of economic policies
- G20 became forum for global economic coordination
- Digital economy and cryptocurrencies introduced new challenges
- Debates over free trade versus protectionism intensified
Key Terms to Review (37)
World War II: World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations divided into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. This war not only reshaped international relations but also marked a significant evolution in global power dynamics, leading to the establishment of new political structures and institutions aimed at promoting peace and cooperation among nations.
Realism: Realism is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the competitive and conflictual side of international politics, focusing on the role of states as the primary actors in an anarchic global system. This perspective highlights the importance of power, national interest, and the idea that moral norms cannot be prioritized over state security and survival.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty is the supreme authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions without external interference. It includes the power to create laws, enforce them, and manage foreign relations, emphasizing the concept of territorial integrity and political independence. The idea of sovereignty shapes international relations, influencing state behavior, global governance, and humanitarian interventions.
Balance of Power: The balance of power is a fundamental principle in international relations where power is distributed among multiple states to prevent any one state from becoming too dominant. This concept influences diplomatic strategies, alliances, and conflicts as states seek to maintain stability and avoid hegemony by countering potential aggressors through various means.
Cold War: The Cold War was a prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States, along with their respective allies, from the end of World War II in 1945 until the early 1990s. This era was characterized by political hostility, military rivalry, and ideological conflict without direct large-scale fighting, largely manifesting through proxy wars, espionage, and nuclear arms competition.
Liberalism: Liberalism is a political and economic philosophy that emphasizes individual rights, democracy, and the importance of international cooperation. It promotes the idea that through institutions and organizations, states can work together to achieve mutual benefits, leading to peace and prosperity in the international system.
World Trade Organization: The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that regulates and facilitates international trade between nations by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and resolving trade disputes. It plays a crucial role in shaping global trade policies and promoting free trade, which is essential for economic growth and globalization.
Asian Financial Crisis: The Asian Financial Crisis was a period of financial turmoil that affected many East and Southeast Asian countries starting in July 1997 and lasting until late 1998. Triggered by the collapse of the Thai baht, this crisis led to severe economic downturns, currency devaluations, and a loss of investor confidence across the region, highlighting vulnerabilities in the international financial system and influencing future economic policies.
G20: The G20, or Group of Twenty, is an international forum comprising 19 countries and the European Union, aimed at addressing global economic issues and fostering international cooperation. Established in 1999 in response to the financial crises of the late 1990s, the G20 has evolved to include discussions on a broader range of issues including trade, climate change, and sustainable development, reflecting its importance in the historical evolution of global governance.
World Bank: The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of poorer countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. Its goal is to reduce poverty and promote sustainable economic development by providing financial and technical assistance, thus playing a critical role in shaping global economic policy and addressing issues related to inequality, development, and governance.
International Monetary Fund: The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution established to promote global economic stability and growth by providing financial assistance, facilitating international trade, and serving as a forum for economic policy discussions among member countries. Its operations reflect the historical evolution of the international system, shaped by the need for cooperation in the face of economic crises.
Clash of Civilizations: The clash of civilizations is a theory proposed by political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, suggesting that the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world will be cultural rather than ideological or economic. This theory emphasizes the differences between major world cultures, or 'civilizations,' and posits that these differences will lead to conflict in an increasingly globalized society.
Bretton Woods System: The Bretton Woods System was an international monetary order established in 1944, aimed at creating a stable and cooperative global economic environment post-World War II. It introduced fixed exchange rates pegged to the U.S. dollar, which was convertible to gold, fostering international trade and investment. This system laid the groundwork for major financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, which continue to play crucial roles in global finance today.
Responsibility to Protect: The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a global political commitment that aims to prevent genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. It asserts that states have the primary responsibility to protect their populations, but if they fail to do so, the international community has a duty to intervene through various means, including diplomatic, humanitarian, and military actions.
End of History Thesis: The end of history thesis is a political theory proposed by Francis Fukuyama, suggesting that the end of the Cold War marked the culmination of humanity's ideological evolution, leading to the universal acceptance of liberal democracy and free-market capitalism as the final form of government. This idea connects deeply with historical events, asserting that major conflicts would decrease as societies embrace democratic principles.
Globalization: Globalization is the process by which businesses, cultures, and economies become interconnected and interdependent on a global scale. This phenomenon has transformed the way nations interact, influencing trade, finance, and the movement of people, ideas, and goods across borders. It has significant implications for state sovereignty, economic practices, and the dynamics of multinational corporations.
Non-Aligned Movement: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an international organization of states that chose not to formally align with or against any major power bloc during the Cold War. It emerged in the 1950s as a response to the pressures of the bipolar world, advocating for the interests of developing countries and promoting peace, security, and independence. The movement reflects the historical evolution of the international system, particularly during a time when countries sought alternatives to dependency on superpowers.
Bandung Conference: The Bandung Conference, held in April 1955 in Indonesia, was a historic meeting of representatives from 29 African and Asian nations aimed at promoting economic and cultural cooperation and opposing colonialism and neocolonialism. This conference marked a significant moment in the historical evolution of the international system as it laid the groundwork for the Non-Aligned Movement and symbolized the emergence of newly independent countries asserting their influence in global affairs.
Apartheid: Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination enforced by the government of South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s. This policy categorized individuals based on race, restricting their rights and freedoms in various aspects of life, including housing, education, and employment. Apartheid is significant in understanding the historical evolution of international relations as it highlights the global response to human rights violations and the dynamics of resistance movements against oppressive regimes.
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks: The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War aimed at curbing the arms race, particularly concerning nuclear weapons. These talks resulted in two main agreements, SALT I and SALT II, which established limits on the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), reflecting a significant effort to stabilize the military balance between the superpowers.
Dependency Theory: Dependency theory is an economic and social theory that posits that the economic development of a nation is conditioned by its relationship with more developed nations, leading to a state of dependency. This theory argues that resources flow from peripheral countries to core countries, which creates and sustains inequalities in wealth and power. Dependency theory emphasizes the structural barriers that hinder the growth of less developed countries while highlighting the exploitative nature of international relations.
Suez Crisis: The Suez Crisis, also known as the Second Arab-Israeli War, was a diplomatic and military confrontation in late 1956 involving Egypt on one side and Israel, the United Kingdom, and France on the other. This crisis is significant as it marked a pivotal moment in the historical evolution of the international system, highlighting the decline of British and French colonial influence and the rising power of the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
Détente: Détente refers to the easing of strained relations, especially between countries, particularly during the Cold War era. It involved a series of diplomatic efforts aimed at reducing tensions and fostering cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union. This period was marked by treaties, dialogues, and cultural exchanges that sought to mitigate the threat of nuclear war and improve international relations.
Crimean War: The Crimean War (1853-1856) was a conflict fought primarily on the Crimean Peninsula, involving a coalition of the British Empire, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia against the Russian Empire. It marked a significant turning point in the historical evolution of international relations by highlighting the decline of traditional powers and the rise of modern warfare, along with shifting alliances and new geopolitical dynamics in Europe.
Berlin Conference: The Berlin Conference, held in 1884-1885, was a meeting of European powers to regulate colonial expansion in Africa, effectively dividing the continent among themselves. This conference is significant because it formalized the 'Scramble for Africa,' establishing rules for colonization and leading to significant geopolitical changes in the international system.
Cuban Missile Crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. This pivotal moment in the Cold War highlighted the extreme tensions between the two superpowers and brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, illustrating key elements of foreign policy decision-making, historical evolution of international relations, and the role of nuclear deterrence.
Warsaw Pact: The Warsaw Pact, formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defense treaty established in 1955 among eight communist states in Eastern Europe. It was created as a response to NATO and served to solidify the military and political alliance of its member states during the Cold War, representing the division of Europe into East and West.
Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine was a U.S. policy established in 1823 aimed at opposing European colonialism in the Americas. It asserted that any intervention by external powers in the politics of the Americas would be viewed as an act of aggression, necessitating U.S. intervention. This doctrine played a significant role in shaping U.S. foreign policy and establishing the Western Hemisphere as a sphere of influence for the United States, particularly regarding North and Latin America.
Henry Kissinger: Henry Kissinger is a prominent American diplomat and political scientist, known for his role as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State during the Nixon and Ford administrations. His foreign policy strategies significantly shaped U.S. relations with other countries, particularly during the Cold War, and his approach often focused on realpolitik, balancing power dynamics and strategic interests.
Post-colonial era: The post-colonial era refers to the period following the end of colonial rule, characterized by the emergence of newly independent nations and the complex socio-political dynamics that arise from the legacy of colonialism. This era has seen countries grappling with issues like identity, governance, economic development, and cultural transformation as they strive to redefine themselves in a world shaped by their colonial past.
Treaty of Westphalia: The Treaty of Westphalia, signed in 1648, is a series of peace agreements that ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe and marked a significant turning point in international relations. This treaty established the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, laying the groundwork for the modern international system based on sovereign nation-states.
World War I: World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, involving many of the world's great powers divided into two main alliances: the Allies and the Central Powers. This war was characterized by trench warfare, significant military innovations, and vast casualties, profoundly reshaping the international landscape and leading to major political, social, and economic changes in the aftermath.
Containment Policy: Containment policy was a foreign policy strategy aimed at preventing the expansion of communism and limiting the influence of the Soviet Union during the Cold War. This approach was rooted in the belief that communism posed a significant threat to democracy and capitalism, and it sought to counteract Soviet actions through a combination of military, economic, and diplomatic efforts. The policy played a pivotal role in shaping international relations from the late 1940s through the 1980s.
Woodrow Wilson: Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921, and is best known for his leadership during World War I and his vision for a new world order based on democracy and international cooperation. His ideas significantly shaped the international system in the early 20th century, particularly through the establishment of the League of Nations as part of the post-war peace settlement.
NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance established in 1949, consisting of North American and European countries aimed at collective defense against aggression. NATO's creation marked a significant shift in international relations, as it emphasized the importance of mutual defense and cooperation among member states, particularly during the Cold War, and continues to play a crucial role in security dynamics in Europe and beyond.
League of Nations: The League of Nations was an international organization founded after World War I to promote peace and cooperation among countries. It aimed to prevent future conflicts through collective security and diplomacy, setting a precedent for modern international organizations, including the United Nations. Although it had notable achievements in resolving some disputes, it ultimately failed to prevent the rise of aggression leading to World War II.
United Nations: The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded in 1945, aimed at fostering international cooperation and preventing conflict through collective security, diplomacy, and humanitarian efforts. It serves as a platform for dialogue among countries, promoting peace, security, human rights, and development worldwide.