🎻Intro to Humanities Unit 10 – Cultural Anthropology & Folklore
Cultural anthropology explores human cultures, societies, and their development through fieldwork and observation. It examines cultural phenomena like folklore, ethnography, and acculturation, providing insights into how different groups of people understand and interact with the world around them.
The field has evolved from its colonial roots to embrace more critical and reflexive approaches. Modern cultural anthropology investigates topics like kinship, economics, politics, and religion across diverse societies, using methods like participant observation and ethnographic interviews to gain deep cultural understanding.
Cultural anthropology studies human cultures, societies, and their development through fieldwork, observation, and other qualitative and quantitative methods
Folklore refers to the expressive culture shared by a particular group of people encompassing stories, music, dance, legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and so on
Ethnography is the systematic study of individual cultures and involves participant observation, interviews, and surveys to understand cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study
Ethnology compares and analyzes different cultures, examining cross-cultural similarities and differences
Emic perspective focuses on cultural distinctions that are meaningful to the members of a given society (insiders' point of view)
Example: How individuals within a culture perceive and categorize the world
Etic perspective refers to the external, social scientific perspective on a culture (outsiders' view)
Example: Examining cultural practices objectively based on anthropological theories and concepts
Acculturation occurs when different cultural groups come into continuous first-hand contact leading to the original cultural patterns of either or both groups being altered
Enculturation is the process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways and manners of their culture through experience, observation, and instruction
Historical Context and Development
Cultural anthropology emerged in the late 19th century as a distinct field of study
Early influential figures include Franz Boas, Bronisław Malinowski, and Margaret Mead
The discipline developed in the context of European colonialism and imperialism leading to a focus on non-Western, often "primitive" cultures
Boas (1858-1942) emphasized cultural relativism, the idea that cultures should be understood in their own terms and not judged by the standards of another culture
Challenged the concept of cultural evolution and argued for the importance of fieldwork and studying cultures holistically
Malinowski (1884-1942) developed the method of participant observation, immersing himself in the cultures he studied (Trobriand Islanders) and learning the native language
Mead (1901-1978) conducted pioneering studies on adolescence and gender roles in Samoa and other Pacific Island cultures
Emphasized the role of culture in shaping human behavior and personality
In the mid-20th century, cultural anthropology shifted towards more critical and reflexive approaches
Recognized the power dynamics inherent in the relationship between researchers and subjects
Increased focus on urban anthropology, globalization, and the impact of colonialism and capitalism on non-Western cultures
Postmodern and interpretive approaches gained prominence in the 1980s and 1990s
Emphasized the subjectivity of ethnographic knowledge and the need for more experimental forms of writing and representation
Cultural Anthropology Basics
Culture is the learned and shared patterns of behaviors and beliefs characteristic of a particular social, ethnic, or age group
Includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society
Cultural relativism holds that all cultures are equally valid and must be understood in their own terms
Avoids ethnocentrism, the tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to judge other cultures by one's own standards
Holism emphasizes the interconnectedness of cultural systems and the need to understand cultures as integrated wholes
Fieldwork is the hallmark of cultural anthropology involving firsthand, immersive observation and participation in a culture
Typically includes learning the native language, building rapport with informants, and keeping detailed field notes
Kinship studies examine the social relationships between individuals in a culture based on blood ties, marriage, or other forms of alliance
Kinship systems vary widely across cultures and often form the basis for social organization, inheritance, and political alliances
Economic anthropology investigates how societies organize the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
Compares different modes of exchange (reciprocity, redistribution, market) and their cultural meanings
Political anthropology focuses on power relations, decision-making processes, and conflict resolution within and between societies
Examines both formal political institutions and informal power dynamics in everyday life
Anthropology of religion explores the role of religion and spirituality in human cultures
Investigates religious beliefs, rituals, and symbols as well as the relationship between religion and other aspects of culture (politics, economics, gender)
Folklore and Oral Traditions
Folklore is the traditional art, literature, knowledge, and practice disseminated largely through oral communication and behavioral example
Includes folktales, myths, legends, proverbs, riddles, songs, dances, and other cultural expressions passed down through generations
Oral traditions are a form of human communication where knowledge, art, ideas, and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another
Folktales are a type of prose narrative that typically feature human or animal characters and often convey moral lessons or cultural values
Example: Aesop's Fables, Grimms' Fairy Tales
Myths are sacred narratives that explain how the world and humanity came to be in their present form
Often involve gods, goddesses, supernatural beings, and the creation of the universe
Example: Greek myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Olympian gods
Legends are stories about extraordinary people or events that are believed to have a historical basis but have been embellished with fictional elements over time
Example: The legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table
Proverbs are short, pithy sayings that express a general truth or piece of advice based on common sense or experience
Example: "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush"
Folklore serves important social and cultural functions
Transmits cultural knowledge, values, and traditions across generations
Reinforces social norms and expectations
Provides entertainment and aesthetic pleasure
Expresses cultural identity and solidarity
Oral traditions are an essential means of preserving and transmitting cultural heritage, especially in societies without written languages
Rely on memorization, repetition, and performance to ensure their survival and continuity
Often involve specialized performers (bards, griots, storytellers) who undergo extensive training and apprenticeship
Research Methods and Fieldwork
Participant observation is the primary research method in cultural anthropology
Involves living among a community, participating in daily activities, and observing social interactions and cultural practices
Requires building trust and rapport with informants, learning the local language, and maintaining detailed field notes
Ethnographic interviews are open-ended, in-depth conversations with key informants about their culture, beliefs, and experiences
May be unstructured (spontaneous, informal) or semi-structured (guided by a set of predetermined questions or topics)
Aim to elicit the insider's perspective (emic view) on cultural phenomena
Life histories are extensive interviews with individuals about their life experiences, often focusing on a particular theme or cultural context
Provide a longitudinal perspective on cultural change and individual adaptation
Surveys and questionnaires are used to collect quantitative data on cultural beliefs, practices, and demographics
Allow for larger sample sizes and statistical analysis but may lack the depth and nuance of qualitative methods
Visual anthropology uses photography, film, and other visual media to document and analyze cultural phenomena
Provides a rich, multisensory record of cultural practices, performances, and material culture
Archival research involves studying historical documents, photographs, and artifacts to gain insights into past cultures and cultural change over time
Reflexivity is the process of critically examining one's own cultural background, biases, and assumptions and how they influence the research process
Acknowledges the power dynamics inherent in the researcher-subject relationship and strives for more collaborative, reciprocal forms of ethnography
Ethics are a crucial consideration in anthropological fieldwork
Researchers must obtain informed consent, protect informants' privacy and confidentiality, and avoid causing harm or exploitation
Must also consider the potential impact of their research on the communities studied and strive to give back in meaningful ways
Case Studies and Examples
Bronisław Malinowski's study of the Trobriand Islanders (1915-1918) is a classic example of participant observation and functionalist analysis
Examined the role of the Kula ring, a ceremonial exchange system, in maintaining social ties and political alliances between island communities
Margaret Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa (1928) challenged Western assumptions about adolescence and gender roles
Argued that the stress and turmoil associated with adolescence in Western societies was not universal but culturally specific
E. E. Evans-Pritchard's Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic Among the Azande (1937) examined the cultural logic and social functions of witchcraft beliefs in a Sudanese society
Showed how accusations of witchcraft served to explain misfortune, reinforce social norms, and maintain political order
Clifford Geertz's The Interpretation of Cultures (1973) introduced the concept of "thick description" and interpretive anthropology
Argued for a more literary, experiential approach to ethnography that captures the richness and complexity of cultural meanings
Nancy Scheper-Hughes' Death Without Weeping (1992) explored the cultural and structural forces shaping maternal love and child death in a Brazilian shantytown
Examined how extreme poverty, political oppression, and cultural beliefs about child development led to high rates of infant mortality and maternal detachment
Philippe Bourgois' In Search of Respect (1995) is an ethnography of crack dealers in East Harlem, New York City
Examined how the underground economy of drug dealing provided a means of survival and a source of identity for young Puerto Rican men in a context of urban poverty and social marginalization
Lila Abu-Lughod's Writing Women's Worlds (1993) is a feminist ethnography of Bedouin women in Egypt
Used life histories and personal narratives to challenge stereotypes of Arab women as passive and oppressed
Highlighted the ways in which women negotiated power and autonomy within the constraints of patriarchal culture
Contemporary Applications
Applied anthropology uses anthropological theories, methods, and insights to solve practical problems in various domains
Examples include public health, education, development, environmental conservation, and business
Medical anthropology examines the cultural, social, and structural factors influencing health, illness, and healing across societies
Investigates traditional medical systems, health disparities, and the globalization of biomedicine
Applied in areas such as pandemic response, mental health interventions, and community-based health promotion
Development anthropology focuses on the social and cultural dimensions of economic development and poverty alleviation
Examines the unintended consequences of development projects, the role of local knowledge and participation, and alternative models of sustainable development
Environmental anthropology studies the complex relationships between human societies and their natural environments
Investigates traditional ecological knowledge, resource management practices, and the impacts of climate change on indigenous communities
Applied in areas such as biodiversity conservation, natural resource management, and environmental justice
Business anthropology applies anthropological concepts and methods to the study of organizational cultures, consumer behavior, and product design
Helps companies understand the cultural contexts of global markets, design culturally appropriate products and services, and manage diversity in the workplace
Anthropology of education examines the cultural transmission of knowledge, values, and skills through formal and informal educational institutions
Investigates the role of schools in reproducing or challenging social inequalities, the impact of cultural diversity on learning, and alternative models of education
Anthropology of media explores the production, circulation, and consumption of media in different cultural contexts
Examines the role of media in shaping cultural identities, social relations, and political movements
Investigates the impact of new media technologies on traditional cultural practices and power structures
Controversies and Debates
The concept of culture itself has been a subject of debate within anthropology
Some argue that the term is too broad, essentializing, and politically loaded
Others defend its usefulness as a heuristic device for understanding human diversity and commonality
The relationship between anthropology and colonialism has been a source of ongoing critique and self-reflection within the discipline
Early anthropologists often worked in the service of colonial administrations, collecting information to facilitate control over colonized peoples
Postcolonial and decolonial approaches seek to deconstruct the colonial legacy of anthropology and develop more equitable, collaborative forms of research
The ethics of anthropological fieldwork have come under scrutiny, particularly in light of past abuses and exploitation of research subjects
Issues include informed consent, privacy, ownership of cultural knowledge, and the potential for harm or unintended consequences
Calls for more participatory, community-based approaches that prioritize the needs and perspectives of research participants
The politics of representation in ethnography have been widely debated
Questions of authorial authority, voice, and the power dynamics inherent in the act of representing others' cultures
Experimental forms of ethnographic writing (dialogic, polyvocal, reflexive) aim to destabilize the authority of the anthropologist and give more space to indigenous voices and perspectives
The role of anthropology in addressing contemporary global challenges is a matter of ongoing discussion and debate
Some argue for a more engaged, activist anthropology that directly intervenes in issues such as poverty, inequality, and climate change
Others caution against the dangers of overreach and the need to maintain critical distance and reflexivity
The relationship between anthropology and other disciplines (sociology, history, psychology, biology) is a source of both collaboration and tension
Interdisciplinary approaches offer new insights and methodologies but also raise questions about the boundaries and distinctiveness of anthropology as a field
The future of anthropology in an increasingly globalized, interconnected world is a topic of ongoing speculation and debate
Challenges include the blurring of cultural boundaries, the acceleration of social and technological change, and the need for new conceptual and methodological tools
Opportunities include the potential for anthropology to contribute to pressing global issues and to forge new forms of intercultural understanding and collaboration