Intro to Cognitive Science Unit 3 Review: Perception & Memory

Key Concepts and Theories

• Cognitive psychology studies mental processes (perception, memory, attention, language, problem-solving, decision-making)
• Information processing model compares the mind to a computer system with input, processing, storage, and output stages
• Top-down processing uses prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret sensory information
• Bottom-up processing relies on the sensory information itself to build perceptions from simple features to complex objects
• Schemas are mental frameworks that organize and interpret information based on past experiences (restaurant schema)
• Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models propose that information is processed simultaneously across a network of interconnected units (neurons)
• Connectionism suggests that mental processes emerge from the activation patterns across neural networks

Sensory Processing and Perception

• Sensation refers to the detection of physical energy by sensory receptors (eyes, ears, skin)
• Perception involves interpreting and organizing sensory information to create meaningful experiences
• Transduction converts physical energy into electrical signals that the brain can process (light into neural impulses)
• Feature detection identifies basic elements of sensory stimuli (lines, edges, colors)
• Gestalt principles describe how the brain organizes perceptual elements into coherent wholes
  • Proximity groups nearby elements together
  • Similarity groups elements with similar characteristics (shape, color)
  • Continuity perceives smooth, continuous lines rather than disjointed segments
• Perceptual constancy maintains a stable perception despite changes in sensory input (size constancy, color constancy)
• Depth perception uses binocular cues (retinal disparity) and monocular cues (linear perspective, occlusion) to estimate distance

Types of Memory Systems

• Sensory memory briefly holds raw sensory information for further processing
  • Iconic memory stores visual information for a fraction of a second
  • Echoic memory stores auditory information for a few seconds
• Short-term memory (STM) holds a limited amount of information (7 ± 2 items) for a brief period (15-30 seconds)
• Working memory is an active system that manipulates and updates information in STM
• Long-term memory (LTM) stores information for an extended period, potentially indefinitely
• Explicit (declarative) memory involves conscious recollection of facts and events
  • Semantic memory stores general knowledge and concepts (capital of France)
  • Episodic memory stores personal experiences tied to specific times and places (graduation ceremony)
• Implicit (non-declarative) memory influences behavior without conscious awareness
  • Procedural memory stores skills and habits (riding a bicycle)
  • Priming occurs when exposure to a stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus (word completion tasks)

Memory Encoding and Retrieval

• Encoding is the process of converting information into a format that can be stored in memory
• Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information to keep it active in STM
• Elaborative rehearsal relates new information to existing knowledge, enhancing encoding into LTM
• Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information from memory
• Recall involves actively reproducing information from memory (essay questions)
• Recognition involves identifying previously encountered information (multiple-choice questions)
• Retrieval cues are stimuli that help access stored memories (a song triggering a childhood memory)
• Context-dependent memory occurs when the retrieval environment matches the encoding environment
• State-dependent memory occurs when the internal state during retrieval matches the state during encoding (mood, drug use)

Attention and Its Role

• Attention is the selective focus on specific aspects of the environment while ignoring others
• Selective attention filters information, prioritizing relevant stimuli and inhibiting irrelevant ones (cocktail party effect)
• Divided attention involves simultaneously focusing on multiple tasks or stimuli
• Sustained attention is the ability to maintain focus on a task over an extended period (air traffic control)
• Bottom-up (exogenous) attention is driven by salient or unexpected stimuli in the environment (a loud noise)
• Top-down (endogenous) attention is voluntarily directed based on goals, expectations, or prior knowledge
• Attentional blink occurs when focusing on one stimulus impairs the detection of a subsequent stimulus within a brief time window
• Change blindness is the failure to notice changes in a visual scene due to attentional limitations

Cognitive Biases and Illusions

• Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking that influence judgment and decision-making
• Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek and interpret information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs
• Availability heuristic judges the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind (overestimating the risk of plane crashes)
• Representativeness heuristic categorizes objects or events based on their similarity to prototypes (assuming a quiet person is a librarian)
• Anchoring bias relies too heavily on the first piece of information encountered (initial price in negotiations)
• Hindsight bias is the tendency to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were
• Illusions demonstrate the difference between perception and reality
  • Müller-Lyer illusion shows equal lines appearing different lengths due to arrowheads
  • Ebbinghaus illusion shows a circle appearing larger or smaller depending on the size of surrounding circles

Real-World Applications

• Eyewitness testimony relies on the accuracy of perception, attention, and memory, which can be influenced by biases and misinformation
• Human factors engineering applies cognitive principles to design user-friendly interfaces and systems (aviation cockpits)
• Advertising uses attention-grabbing techniques and memory strategies to influence consumer behavior
• Educational practices can be informed by research on attention, memory encoding, and retrieval strategies (spaced repetition, testing effect)
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) helps individuals identify and change maladaptive thought patterns and behaviors
• Decision support systems use cognitive models to aid in complex decision-making (medical diagnosis)

Ongoing Research and Debates

• Nature vs. nurture: the relative contributions of genetic factors and environmental experiences to cognitive development
• Modularity vs. generality: whether cognitive processes are domain-specific or share common underlying mechanisms
• Implicit vs. explicit learning: the role of conscious awareness in acquiring knowledge and skills
• Embodied cognition: the idea that cognitive processes are grounded in sensory and motor experiences
• Neuroplasticity: the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt in response to experience, injury, or disease
• Artificial intelligence (AI) and cognitive modeling: using computational models to simulate and understand human cognition
• Individual differences in cognitive abilities: the study of variations in perception, attention, memory, and other cognitive processes across individuals
• Cultural influences on cognition: how cultural factors shape perception, attention, memory, and other cognitive processes