Minority groups often face threats and oppression from majority groups who see them as competition. This can lead to discrimination in jobs, housing, and education. Stereotypes and prejudice fuel these perceptions, resulting in unfair treatment and hostility.
Oppression takes many forms, from systemic discrimination to voter suppression and violence. Cultural suppression aims to erase minority identities. In extreme cases, oppression escalates to ethnic cleansing or genocide. These practices maintain power imbalances between groups.
Assessing Perceived Threats and Oppression of Minority Groups
Assessment of minority group threats
- Majority groups often perceive minority groups as threats to their power, status, or way of life based on factors such as race (African Americans), ethnicity (Hispanics), religion (Muslims), or ideology (communists)
- Perceived threats can be economic (competition for jobs), cultural (changing demographics), or political (gaining voting power) in nature
- Majority groups may view minority groups as competing for limited resources or opportunities, such as housing (gentrification), education (affirmative action), or social services (welfare benefits)
- Stereotyping and prejudice can fuel the perception of minority groups as threats by portraying them as criminal (gang members), untrustworthy (illegal immigrants), or inferior (low intelligence)
- Prejudiced attitudes can lead to discrimination (hiring practices) and hostility (hate speech) towards minority groups
Methods of minority oppression
- Systemic discrimination occurs in various aspects of life, such as:
- Employment discrimination, including hiring practices (resume screening) or unequal pay (gender wage gap)
- Housing discrimination, such as redlining (denying loans) or restrictive covenants (prohibiting sales to certain groups)
- Educational discrimination, like segregation (separate schools) or unequal funding (property tax disparities)
- Voter suppression and disenfranchisement tactics aim to limit minority political participation through literacy tests (Jim Crow era), poll taxes (until 1964), or other barriers to voting (strict ID laws)
- Gerrymandering (manipulating district boundaries) or redistricting can dilute minority voting power by dispersing or concentrating their votes
- Violence and intimidation target minority groups through hate crimes (cross burnings), police brutality (excessive force), or mob violence (lynchings)
- In extreme cases, oppression can escalate to massacres (Tulsa Race Massacre), ethnic cleansing (Rohingya in Myanmar), or genocide (Holocaust)
- Cultural suppression and forced assimilation aim to erase minority identities by banning or restricting languages (Native American boarding schools), religions (headscarf bans), or cultural practices (African drumming)
- Minority groups may be forced to adopt majority culture or values through assimilation policies (Americanization) or cultural imperialism (English as global language)
Power Dynamics and Civil Rights Abuses
Power dynamics in government responsiveness
- Majority groups often have disproportionate political power and representation, leading to government policies and laws that favor majority interests (tax cuts for the wealthy)
- Minority groups may struggle to have their concerns addressed by the government due to underrepresentation (lack of diversity in Congress)
- Minority groups face barriers to political participation and influence, such as voter suppression (felony disenfranchisement), lack of access to political networks (old boys' clubs), or limited financial resources (campaign funding disparities)
- Governments may be more responsive to majority demands, even if they infringe on minority rights, in order to maintain political support and stability (same-sex marriage bans)
- Majority groups can pressure governments to maintain the status quo (resisting police reforms) or resist change (opposing immigration reform)
Civil rights abuses across contexts
- Historical examples in the United States:
- Slavery and the denial of basic rights to African Americans (Dred Scott v. Sandford)
- Jim Crow laws and segregation in the post-Civil War era (Plessy v. Ferguson)
- Japanese American internment during World War II (Korematsu v. United States)
- Contemporary examples in the United States:
- Racial profiling and police brutality against African Americans and other minorities (George Floyd)
- Discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals in employment (Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado), housing (same-sex couple evictions), and public accommodations (transgender bathroom bills)
- Islamophobia and targeting of Muslim Americans after 9/11 (travel bans)
- Global examples:
- Apartheid in South Africa and the oppression of the black majority (Nelson Mandela)
- Persecution of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar (ethnic cleansing)
- Discrimination against Roma people in Europe (forced sterilization)
- Oppression of Uyghur Muslims in China (internment camps)
Civil Rights, Liberties, and Human Rights
- Civil rights protect individuals from discrimination and ensure equal treatment under the law (equal protection)
- Civil liberties are fundamental freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, such as freedom of speech and religion
- Human rights are universal rights inherent to all individuals, regardless of nationality or legal status
- Intersectionality examines how multiple forms of discrimination (e.g., race, gender, class) intersect and compound oppression
- Systemic racism refers to the ways in which racial bias is embedded in societal institutions and structures
- Civil disobedience is a form of nonviolent protest used to challenge unjust laws or policies (sit-ins during the Civil Rights Movement)
Key Terms to Review (52)
Shelby County v. Holder: Shelby County v. Holder is a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 2013, which ruled that key parts of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were unconstitutional, specifically the formula used to determine which jurisdictions needed federal approval before changing voting laws or practices. This decision significantly impacted the enforcement of voting rights protections in the United States.
Human rights law: Human Rights Law is a body of international legal standards designed to protect individuals' fundamental rights and freedoms from infringement, particularly by states and governmental bodies. It encompasses various treaties, customary international law, and declarations that stipulate obligations governments must follow to ensure the protection of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights.
Articles of Confederation: The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution of the United States, ratified in 1781, which outlined the initial framework for the national government but allotted most powers to the individual states. This system revealed significant weaknesses, such as a lack of central authority over commerce and defense, leading to its replacement by the U.S. Constitution in 1789.
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is a non-profit organization dedicated to defending and preserving the individual rights and liberties guaranteed by the Constitution and laws of the United States. It engages in litigation, lobbying, and education efforts to support a broad range of issues including freedom of speech, privacy, reproductive rights, and racial justice.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a concept that recognizes individuals face overlapping forms of discrimination and disadvantage that stem from their various identities, such as race, gender, class, sexuality, and other axes of identity. It emphasizes the need for nuanced approaches to civil rights policies and practices that take into account these multidimensional aspects.
Gross National Happiness: Gross National Happiness is a measure that reflects the collective happiness and well-being of a nation's population, considering factors beyond just economic wealth such as psychological well-being, health, education, and environmental sustainability. It emphasizes the importance of non-material aspects of development as integral to a country's progress.
Three-Fifths Compromise: The Three-Fifths Compromise was an agreement reached during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention that determined each slave would be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of state representation in Congress and taxation. This compromise was pivotal in addressing the political power distribution between Northern and Southern states.
Brennan Center: The Brennan Center for Justice is a non-partisan law and policy institute that focuses on reforming, revitalizing, and when necessary, defending systems of democracy and justice in the United States. It actively addresses issues related to civil rights abuses by advocating for fair elections, criminal justice reform, and protecting the rule of law.
Civil disobedience: Civil disobedience is the act of intentionally refusing to obey certain laws, demands, or commands of a government or occupying international power as a form of peaceful political protest. It is typically carried out to draw attention to laws or policies considered unjust and to advocate for change without resorting to violence.
13th Amendment: The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution officially abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted. Ratified in 1865, it was a crucial step in the fight against civil rights abuses and marked a significant transformation in American society.
Hancock: In the context of civil rights abuses within the subject of Introduction to Political Science, "Hancock" does not refer to an individual or historical figure directly. Instead, it represents actions or legislations that have a significant yet often overlooked impact on civil rights movements, akin to signing one's name to a cause or document but failing to fully address or rectify underlying issues.
Voting Rights Alliance: The Voting Rights Alliance is an organization or collective effort aimed at ensuring fair access to voting and combating civil rights abuses related to electoral processes. It focuses on addressing and rectifying issues such as voter suppression, gerrymandering, and disenfranchisement, particularly among marginalized communities.
Free Establishment Clause: The Free Establishment Clause is a provision in the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution that prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one religion over another. It ensures that citizens have the freedom to practice any religion of their choice or no religion at all without government interference.
Systemic racism: Systemic racism is a form of racism that is embedded as normal practice within society or an organization, leading to discrimination in criminal justice, employment, housing, health care, political power, and education among other issues. It reflects and reinforces disparities in power and resources between racial groups.
Voter suppression: Voter suppression encompasses a range of strategies used to decrease or hinder the ability of citizens to participate in the electoral process, thereby impacting election outcomes. It can be achieved through laws, administrative rules, and tactics that make voting more difficult for certain groups.
For the People Act: The For the People Act is proposed legislation aimed at expanding voting rights, changing campaign finance laws to reduce the influence of money in politics, and strengthening ethics rules for public servants. It seeks to address various civil rights abuses by ensuring fair access to voting and reducing corruption.
Lhotshampa: The Lhotshampa are a Nepali-speaking ethnic minority that was forced to leave Bhutan in the late 20th century due to ethnic cleansing and discrimination policies. This expulsion led to a significant refugee crisis, highlighting issues of civil rights abuses within Bhutan.
Apartheid: Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa from 1948 until the early 1990s. It enforced a strict racial hierarchy privileging white South Africans and disenfranchising people of color.
Gerrymandering: Gerrymandering is the practice of manipulating the boundaries of electoral constituencies to favor one party or class. It often results in voting districts that are oddly shaped and do not reflect logical geographical divisions.
Civil Liberties: Civil liberties are fundamental individual rights and freedoms that are protected from governmental or societal restriction. They are essential for the functioning of a democratic society and ensure the freedom and autonomy of citizens.
Holocaust: The Holocaust refers to the systematic, state-sponsored genocide of European Jews and other groups carried out by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. It was a horrific event that resulted in the mass murder of approximately six million Jews, as well as millions of other victims, including Roma, Slavs, political and religious dissidents, and those with disabilities.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a theoretical framework that examines how different forms of social and political identities, such as race, class, gender, sexuality, disability, and age, intersect and overlap to create unique experiences of discrimination and marginalization. It emphasizes that these identities cannot be analyzed in isolation, but must be understood in relation to one another.
Affirmative Action: Affirmative action refers to policies and programs that aim to provide equal opportunities and increase representation of historically disadvantaged or underrepresented groups, such as racial minorities and women, in various areas like employment, education, and government contracting.
Systemic Racism: Systemic racism refers to the complex and interconnected systems, policies, and practices that perpetuate racial inequalities and disadvantage certain racial groups, often in subtle and ingrained ways. It is a structural issue that goes beyond individual prejudices or discriminatory acts, permeating various societal institutions and power structures.
Human Rights: Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, regardless of their nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They are inherent to all human beings and include the right to life, liberty, and security, as well as the freedom from slavery, torture, and arbitrary arrest or detention.
Civil Disobedience: Civil disobedience refers to the deliberate, nonviolent refusal to comply with certain laws or government demands, often as a form of political protest or to bring attention to perceived injustices. It is a tactic used by individuals and groups to challenge the status quo and advocate for social and political change.
Voter Suppression: Voter suppression refers to the various tactics and strategies used to prevent or discourage eligible voters from exercising their right to vote. It is a concerning issue that can undermine the integrity of democratic elections and limit political participation.
Gerrymandering: Gerrymandering is the manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or class over another. It is a practice that can undermine the democratic process by distorting the will of the voters and skewing election outcomes.
Disenfranchisement: Disenfranchisement refers to the deprivation or denial of the right to vote, which can limit voter participation and undermine civil rights. This term is particularly relevant in the contexts of voter suppression, civil rights abuses, and efforts by governments to address civil rights issues.
Apartheid: Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination that existed in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. It was a policy of separating and disadvantaging non-white racial groups, primarily Black Africans, in all aspects of life, including politics, economy, and society.
Hate Crimes: Hate crimes are criminal acts motivated by bias against a person's race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity. These crimes target individuals or groups based on their perceived membership in a protected class and aim to intimidate, harass, or harm them.
Lynchings: Lynchings refer to the extrajudicial killing of individuals, often African Americans, by a mob or group of people, typically through hanging or other forms of violence. These acts were used as a tool of racial terror and oppression against marginalized communities, particularly in the post-Reconstruction era of the United States.
Americanization: Americanization refers to the process by which immigrants and minority groups in the United States adopt the language, values, and customs of mainstream American culture. It involves the assimilation and integration of these individuals into the dominant societal norms and practices.
Redlining: Redlining is the discriminatory practice of denying or limiting financial services, particularly mortgage loans, to certain neighborhoods based on the racial or ethnic composition of that area. It is a form of systemic racism that has had long-lasting, damaging effects on communities of color.
Tulsa Race Massacre: The Tulsa Race Massacre was a horrific event that occurred in 1921 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where a white mob attacked and destroyed the prosperous African American community of Greenwood, known as 'Black Wall Street.' This devastating incident is considered one of the worst acts of racial violence in American history and exemplifies the civil rights abuses experienced by Black Americans during this period.
Gentrification: Gentrification is the process by which a previously low-income urban area undergoes revitalization and renewal, often leading to an influx of more affluent residents and the displacement of the original, lower-income inhabitants. This term is particularly relevant in the context of civil rights abuses, as gentrification can exacerbate social and economic inequalities within a community.
Ethnic Cleansing: Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal or extermination of ethnic, racial, and/or religious groups from a given territory with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. It is a form of genocide and a gross violation of human rights.
Minority Groups: Minority groups refer to social groups that are numerically inferior to the dominant or majority group in a society, and who often face discrimination, marginalization, and unequal access to power and resources. These groups are typically defined by their distinct cultural, ethnic, racial, religious, or linguistic characteristics that set them apart from the majority population.
Stereotyping: Stereotyping is the process of ascribing oversimplified, generalized, and often inaccurate beliefs or characteristics to individuals based on their membership in a particular social group. It involves making broad judgments about people without considering their unique qualities or circumstances.
Prejudice: Prejudice refers to a preconceived, often negative, judgment or opinion about an individual or group based on limited or inaccurate information, rather than actual experience or evidence. It is a form of bias that can lead to discriminatory behavior and the denial of equal rights and opportunities.
Police Brutality: Police brutality refers to the excessive and unjustified use of force by law enforcement officers against civilians. It is a violation of civil rights and a form of police misconduct that can range from physical abuse to the use of lethal force, often disproportionately targeting marginalized communities.
Islamophobia: Islamophobia refers to the irrational fear, hatred, or prejudice against the religion of Islam and its followers, the Muslims. It involves discriminatory attitudes and behaviors towards Muslims, often stemming from misconceptions, stereotypes, and a lack of understanding of the Islamic faith and its diverse community.
Equal Protection: Equal protection is a legal doctrine that requires the government to apply the law equally and without discrimination. It ensures that all individuals are treated the same way under the law, regardless of their race, gender, or other protected characteristics.
Jim Crow Era: The Jim Crow era refers to the period in American history, primarily from the late 19th to mid-20th century, when state and local laws enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. This system of legalized discrimination and oppression of African Americans had far-reaching impacts on political culture, civil rights, and the struggle for equality.
Genocide: Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. It involves the intentional killing of members of the group, as well as other actions aimed at preventing births and forcibly transferring children to another group, with the goal of destroying the group as a whole.
Cultural Imperialism: Cultural imperialism refers to the process by which a dominant or powerful culture imposes its values, beliefs, and practices on other cultures, often through economic, political, or social means. It involves the exportation and imposition of a culture, language, and way of life from one society onto another, typically by a more powerful entity.
Plessy v. Ferguson: Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld the doctrine of 'separate but equal' racial segregation laws. The case established a legal precedent that allowed state-sponsored racial discrimination, effectively denying the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment for African Americans.
George Floyd: George Floyd was a 46-year-old African American man whose death in police custody in May 2020 sparked widespread protests against police brutality and racial injustice. His death highlighted the longstanding issue of civil rights abuses faced by Black individuals in the United States.
Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado: Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado was a 2018 Supreme Court case that centered on a clash between religious freedom and anti-discrimination laws. The case involved a Colorado bakery owner who refused to create a custom wedding cake for a same-sex couple, citing his religious beliefs against same-sex marriage.
Nelson Mandela: Nelson Mandela was a renowned South African anti-apartheid activist and politician who played a pivotal role in the civil rights movement and the fight against racial oppression in South Africa. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential leaders of the 20th century, known for his unwavering commitment to social justice and his tireless efforts to promote equality and human rights.
Korematsu v. United States: Korematsu v. United States was a landmark Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of the forced relocation and incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II. The decision established the legal precedent that the government could violate individual civil liberties in the name of national security.
Dred Scott v. Sandford: Dred Scott v. Sandford was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1857 that denied citizenship and constitutional rights to African Americans, even those who were free. The case had significant implications for the issue of slavery and civil rights in the United States.