🦚Indian Philosophy Unit 3 – Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Astika refers to the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy that accept the authority of the Vedas
• Nastika refers to the heterodox schools that reject the authority of the Vedas (Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka)
• Darshana means "sight" or "view" and refers to the different philosophical perspectives or schools
• Pramana refers to the means of valid knowledge or the epistemological tools used by each school
  • Pratyaksha is direct perception through the senses
  • Anumana is inference based on logical reasoning
  • Sabda is verbal testimony, especially from the Vedas
  • Upamana is comparison or analogy
• Purusha refers to the individual soul or consciousness in Samkhya and Yoga philosophies
• Prakrti refers to the primal matter or nature in Samkhya philosophy, consisting of the three gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas)

Historical Context and Origins

• The orthodox schools emerged during the late Vedic period (1500-500 BCE) and the subsequent classical period of Indian philosophy
• They developed in response to the challenges posed by the heterodox schools, particularly Buddhism and Jainism
• The schools aimed to systematize and interpret the teachings of the Vedas and Upanishads
• They engaged in debates and discussions with each other and with the heterodox schools, refining their philosophical positions
• The schools were patronized by various rulers and institutions, leading to their spread and influence across India
• The development of the orthodox schools coincided with the rise of classical Sanskrit literature, including philosophical texts and commentaries

Major Orthodox Schools

• Samkhya is one of the oldest schools, founded by Kapila, and emphasizes the dualism of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakrti (matter)
• Yoga, closely related to Samkhya, was systematized by Patanjali and focuses on the practice of meditation to achieve liberation
• Nyaya, founded by Gautama, is known for its rigorous system of logic and epistemology
  • It developed a five-step syllogism (panchavayava) for logical reasoning
• Vaisheshika, founded by Kanada, is an atomistic school that proposes a classification of reality into categories (padarthas)
• Mimamsa, attributed to Jaimini, emphasizes the interpretation of Vedic rituals and the philosophy of language
  • It is divided into two sub-schools: Purva-Mimamsa and Uttara-Mimamsa (Vedanta)
• Vedanta, based on the Upanishads and systematized by Badarayana, focuses on the nature of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (individual self)
  • It has three main sub-schools: Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism)

Core Philosophical Principles

• The orthodox schools accept the authority of the Vedas as revealed knowledge (shruti) and the concept of Atman (self) and Brahman (ultimate reality)
• They aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of reality, including metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics
• The schools propose different paths to liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death (samsara)
  • These include knowledge (jnana), devotion (bhakti), and action (karma)
• They emphasize the role of dharma (ethical duty) and the law of karma (cause and effect) in shaping an individual's life and future rebirths
• The schools engage in debates on the nature of the self, the relationship between the individual and the ultimate reality, and the means of valid knowledge
• They also discuss the nature of the world, the origin of suffering, and the path to enlightenment or self-realization

Key Thinkers and Texts

• Kapila, the founder of Samkhya, is mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita, but his original texts are lost
  • The oldest surviving text of Samkhya is the Samkhya-karika by Ishvarakrishna (c. 4th century CE)
• Patanjali, the compiler of the Yoga Sutras (c. 2nd century BCE), systematized the Yoga school
• Gautama, the founder of Nyaya, authored the Nyaya Sutras, which were later commented on by Vatsyayana (c. 5th century CE)
• Kanada, the founder of Vaisheshika, authored the Vaisheshika Sutras, which were expanded by later commentators like Prashastapada (c. 6th century CE)
• Jaimini, the founder of Mimamsa, authored the Mimamsa Sutras, which were elaborated on by Shabara (c. 1st century BCE)
• Badarayana, the systematizer of Vedanta, authored the Brahma Sutras, which were interpreted differently by the sub-schools of Vedanta
  • Adi Shankara (c. 8th century CE) was the main proponent of Advaita Vedanta
  • Ramanuja (c. 11th century CE) developed Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
  • Madhva (c. 13th century CE) established Dvaita Vedanta

Debates and Controversies

• The orthodox schools engaged in debates with each other and with the heterodox schools on various philosophical issues
• Samkhya and Yoga debated the existence of God (Ishvara), with Samkhya denying it and Yoga accepting it
• Nyaya and Vaisheshika differed on the nature of the self (Atman), with Nyaya considering it to be distinct from the mind and body, while Vaisheshika saw it as a separate substance
• Mimamsa and Vedanta disagreed on the importance of Vedic rituals, with Mimamsa emphasizing their centrality and Vedanta focusing on philosophical knowledge
• Within Vedanta, the sub-schools debated the nature of the relationship between Brahman and Atman
  • Advaita Vedanta proposed a non-dualistic view, asserting the ultimate identity of Brahman and Atman
  • Vishishtadvaita Vedanta maintained a qualified non-dualism, with Atman being a part of Brahman
  • Dvaita Vedanta advocated a dualistic view, with Brahman and Atman being eternally separate
• The schools also debated the validity and hierarchy of the pramanas (means of knowledge), with some prioritizing perception and others emphasizing inference or scriptural testimony

Influence on Indian Culture

• The orthodox schools have had a profound impact on Indian philosophy, religion, and culture
• They have shaped the worldview and values of Hinduism, providing a philosophical foundation for its beliefs and practices
• The concepts and terminology of the orthodox schools have become part of the common vocabulary and discourse in Indian intellectual circles
• The schools have influenced the development of Indian literature, art, and architecture, with their ideas being reflected in various works
• The debates and discussions among the schools have fostered a tradition of intellectual inquiry and critical thinking in Indian society
• The orthodox schools have also interacted with and influenced other religious and philosophical traditions in India, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism
• The ideas of the orthodox schools have spread beyond India, influencing philosophical thought in other parts of Asia and the world

Comparison with Other Philosophical Traditions

• The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy share some similarities with ancient Greek philosophy, particularly in their emphasis on logical reasoning and the search for ultimate truth
  • The Nyaya school's syllogism is comparable to Aristotelian logic
• However, the Indian schools place a greater emphasis on spiritual liberation and the integration of philosophical knowledge with religious practice
• The concept of karma and rebirth is unique to Indian philosophy and sets it apart from Western philosophical traditions
• The orthodox schools' acceptance of the Vedas as authoritative distinguishes them from the heterodox schools of Indian philosophy and from philosophical traditions outside India
• The Indian schools' focus on the nature of the self and its relationship to the ultimate reality is comparable to some strands of Western metaphysics and epistemology
• The Yoga school's emphasis on meditation and physical practices has parallels in some Eastern philosophical and spiritual traditions, such as Buddhism and Taoism
• The Mimamsa school's analysis of language and interpretation has similarities with Western hermeneutics and philosophy of language