oklahoma history unit 2 study guides

Key European Explorers

• Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer sponsored by Spain, reached the Americas in 1492 believing he had reached Asia
• Hernando de Soto, a Spanish explorer, led the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day United States (Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi)
• Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, a Spanish conquistador, explored the Southwest United States in search of the mythical Seven Cities of Gold (Cíbola)
• Robert Cavelier de La Salle, a French explorer, navigated the length of the Mississippi River and claimed the region for France, naming it Louisiana
• Hernando Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, led the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under Spanish rule
• Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer in the service of the French crown, explored the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick
• Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, claimed what is now Canada for France and was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River
• Henry Hudson, an English sea explorer and navigator, explored the region around modern-day New York metropolitan area while seeking a western route to Asia under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company

Motivations for Exploration

• Economic gain through the establishment of new trade routes and the search for valuable resources (gold, silver, spices)
• Religious zeal to spread Christianity and convert indigenous populations to the faith
• Political and strategic interests in establishing colonies and expanding the influence of European powers
• Desire for adventure, fame, and personal glory among explorers and conquistadors
• Advancements in navigation technology (magnetic compass, astrolabe) and shipbuilding (caravels) enabled longer voyages
• Competition among European nations (Spain, Portugal, England, France) to claim new territories and establish dominance
• Pursuit of scientific knowledge and understanding of the world's geography, flora, and fauna
• Overpopulation and limited economic opportunities in Europe drove people to seek new lands and prospects

First Contact with Native Americans

• Initial encounters between European explorers and Native Americans were often characterized by curiosity, misunderstanding, and cultural differences
• Native Americans had diverse cultures, languages, and ways of life that varied across regions (nomadic, semi-nomadic, agricultural)
• Europeans often viewed Native Americans as "uncivilized" or "savage" due to their different customs, beliefs, and lack of technological advancement
• Some early interactions were peaceful, involving trade and cultural exchange (Columbian Exchange)
  • Native Americans introduced Europeans to new crops (maize, potatoes, tobacco) and medicines
  • Europeans introduced Native Americans to horses, metal tools, and firearms
• Other encounters led to conflict, violence, and exploitation as Europeans sought to dominate and colonize the land
• European diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza) decimated Native American populations, who had no natural immunity
• Misunderstandings and cultural differences often led to mistrust and hostility between the two groups
• Language barriers and the lack of a common system of communication hindered effective diplomacy and negotiation

Early Settlement Attempts

• The Spanish established the first permanent European settlement in the Americas at Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) in 1496
• The English attempted to establish a colony on Roanoke Island (present-day North Carolina) in 1585, but the colony mysteriously disappeared by 1590
• The French established a short-lived colony called Fort Caroline near present-day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, but it was destroyed by the Spanish in 1565
• The Spanish founded St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the continental United States
• Jamestown, Virginia, was founded by the English in 1607 and became the first permanent English settlement in North America
  • The colony initially struggled with food shortages, disease, and conflicts with the local Powhatan tribe
  • The introduction of tobacco cultivation in 1612 helped the colony become economically viable
• The Dutch established the colony of New Netherland in 1614, with its capital New Amsterdam (present-day New York City)
• The Pilgrims, English Puritan separatists, founded the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620 after signing the Mayflower Compact
• The Massachusetts Bay Colony was established in 1629 by a group of Puritan settlers seeking religious freedom

Impact on Indigenous Populations

• European colonization had devastating consequences for Native American populations, leading to significant declines and the displacement of many tribes
• The introduction of European diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza) caused widespread epidemics and high mortality rates among Native Americans
• European settlers encroached upon Native American lands, leading to conflicts over resources and territory
  • The Powhatan Wars (1610-1646) in Virginia between English settlers and the Powhatan Confederacy
  • The Pequot War (1636-1638) in New England between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of English colonists and their Native American allies
• Native Americans were often forced to relocate or adapt to European ways of life, leading to the loss of traditional cultures and practices
• Some Native American tribes formed alliances with European powers to gain an advantage over rival tribes or to protect their interests
• The fur trade altered Native American economic systems and social structures, as tribes competed for access to European goods and weapons
• The enslavement and exploitation of Native Americans by European colonizers further contributed to population declines and social disruption
• The impact of European colonization on Native American populations varied across regions and tribes, with some experiencing greater losses than others

Colonial Powers in the Region

• Spain was the first European power to establish a significant presence in the Americas, with colonies in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America
  • Spanish colonization was driven by the search for gold and silver, as well as the desire to spread Catholicism
  • The Spanish established a system of missions and presidios to convert Native Americans and maintain control over the territory
• France established colonies in present-day Canada (New France) and the Mississippi River Valley (Louisiana)
  • French colonization was primarily focused on the fur trade and establishing alliances with Native American tribes
  • The French also sought to spread Catholicism through the work of Jesuit missionaries
• England established colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America, from New England to the Chesapeake region
  • English colonization was driven by economic opportunities (tobacco, timber, fishing) and the desire for religious freedom
  • The English colonies were characterized by a greater degree of self-governance and representative institutions compared to other European colonies
• The Dutch established the colony of New Netherland in present-day New York and New Jersey, with a focus on fur trade and agriculture
• Other European powers, such as Sweden and Russia, had smaller and shorter-lived colonial ventures in North America

Trade and Economic Developments

• The Columbian Exchange introduced new crops, animals, and goods between the Americas and Europe, transforming both regions' economies and diets
  • Native American crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes) were introduced to Europe, while European livestock (horses, cattle, pigs) and crops (wheat, sugar) were brought to the Americas
  • The exchange also included the tragic introduction of European diseases to the Americas, decimating Native American populations
• The fur trade became a significant economic driver in North America, with European powers competing for control over the lucrative market
  • Native American tribes played a crucial role in the fur trade, acting as trappers, middlemen, and consumers of European goods
  • The fur trade led to the exploration and mapping of vast regions of North America, as well as the establishment of trading posts and settlements
• Plantation agriculture, particularly the cultivation of tobacco, cotton, and sugar, became a major economic activity in the southern colonies
  • The demand for labor in plantation agriculture led to the growth of the transatlantic slave trade and the widespread use of enslaved African labor
• The triangular trade developed, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas through the exchange of manufactured goods, enslaved people, and raw materials
• Mercantilism, an economic policy that emphasized the accumulation of wealth through exports and the control of trade, shaped colonial economic policies and relationships with Europe
• Colonial cities, such as Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, emerged as important centers of trade, commerce, and craftsmanship

Legacy of Early European Presence

• The European colonization of the Americas had far-reaching and long-lasting consequences for the region's political, social, and economic development
• The establishment of European colonies laid the foundation for the future nations of the Americas, including the United States, Canada, and Latin American countries
• The introduction of European languages, religions, and cultural practices significantly influenced the development of American societies and identities
• The displacement and decimation of Native American populations led to the loss of indigenous cultures, knowledge, and ways of life
• The transatlantic slave trade and the institution of slavery had profound and lasting impacts on the Americas, shaping social structures, race relations, and economic systems
• The Columbian Exchange transformed global ecosystems, diets, and economies, with the introduction of new crops, animals, and diseases
• The legacy of early European exploration and colonization continues to shape discussions and debates around issues such as cultural identity, social justice, and historical memory
• The political and economic relationships established during the colonial period influenced the future interactions between the Americas and Europe, including the struggles for independence and the formation of new nations
• The early European presence in the Americas set the stage for the ongoing processes of globalization, cultural exchange, and the interconnectedness of world regions