honors physics unit 6 study guides

Key Concepts

• Circular motion involves an object moving in a circular path at a constant speed
• Centripetal force is a force directed toward the center of the circular path that causes an object to move in a circle
  • Always perpendicular to the object's velocity
  • Provided by tension, gravity, friction, or other forces depending on the situation
• Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration directed toward the center of the circular path
  • Caused by the centripetal force and always points toward the center of the circle
  • Magnitude given by $a_c = \frac{v^2}{r}$, where $v$ is the object's speed and $r$ is the radius of the circular path
• Angular displacement ($\theta$) measures the angle through which an object rotates (radians or degrees)
• Angular velocity ($\omega$) is the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time
  • Measured in radians per second (rad/s) or degrees per second (deg/s)
  • Related to linear velocity by $v = r\omega$
• Angular acceleration ($\alpha$) is the rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time (rad/s² or deg/s²)

Circular Motion Basics

• Objects in circular motion have a constant speed but changing velocity due to the change in direction
• The direction of the velocity vector is always tangent to the circular path
• Period ($T$) is the time required for one complete revolution
  • Measured in seconds (s)
  • Related to frequency ($f$) by $T = \frac{1}{f}$
• Frequency is the number of revolutions per unit time (revolutions per second or Hertz, Hz)
• Arc length ($s$) is the distance traveled along the circular path
  • Calculated using the formula $s = r\theta$, where $r$ is the radius and $\theta$ is the angular displacement in radians
• Linear speed ($v$) is the distance traveled per unit time along the circular path (m/s)
  • Related to angular velocity by $v = r\omega$

Centripetal Force and Acceleration

• Centripetal force is a net force that causes an object to follow a circular path
  • Always directed toward the center of the circle
  • Does not change the object's speed, only its direction
• The magnitude of the centripetal force is given by $F_c = \frac{mv^2}{r}$, where $m$ is the object's mass, $v$ is its speed, and $r$ is the radius of the circular path
• Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration caused by the centripetal force
  • Always directed toward the center of the circle
  • Magnitude given by $a_c = \frac{v^2}{r}$
• The direction of the centripetal acceleration is always perpendicular to the object's velocity
• Examples of centripetal force include the tension in a string when swinging an object in a circle or the gravitational force acting on a satellite orbiting Earth

Rotational Kinematics

• Rotational kinematics describes the motion of a rotating object using angular displacement, angular velocity, and angular acceleration
• Angular displacement ($\theta$) is the angle through which an object rotates (radians or degrees)
  • Measured from a reference line to the object's position
• Angular velocity ($\omega$) is the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time (rad/s or deg/s)
  • Average angular velocity is given by $\omega_{avg} = \frac{\Delta\theta}{\Delta t}$
  • Instantaneous angular velocity is the limit of the average angular velocity as the time interval approaches zero
• Angular acceleration ($\alpha$) is the rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time (rad/s² or deg/s²)
  • Constant angular acceleration is given by $\alpha = \frac{\Delta\omega}{\Delta t}$
• Rotational kinematic equations for constant angular acceleration:
  • $\theta = \theta_0 + \omega_0 t + \frac{1}{2}\alpha t^2$
  • $\omega = \omega_0 + \alpha t$
  • $\theta = \theta_0 + \frac{1}{2}(\omega_0 + \omega)t$
  • $\omega^2 = \omega_0^2 + 2\alpha(\theta - \theta_0)$

Torque and Rotational Dynamics

• Torque ($\tau$) is the rotational equivalent of force, causing an object to rotate
  • Defined as the cross product of the position vector ($\vec{r}$) and the force vector ($\vec{F}$): $\vec{\tau} = \vec{r} \times \vec{F}$
  • The magnitude of torque is given by $\tau = rF\sin\theta$, where $r$ is the distance from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is applied, $F$ is the magnitude of the force, and $\theta$ is the angle between the position vector and the force vector
• The net torque on an object determines its angular acceleration according to the rotational version of Newton's second law: $\sum \tau = I\alpha$, where $I$ is the object's moment of inertia and $\alpha$ is its angular acceleration
• Moment of inertia ($I$) is a measure of an object's resistance to rotational motion
  • Depends on the object's mass distribution and the axis of rotation
  • For a point mass: $I = mr^2$, where $m$ is the mass and $r$ is the distance from the axis of rotation
  • For extended objects, the moment of inertia is calculated by integrating over the object's mass distribution
• Rotational work is the work done by a torque to rotate an object
  • Calculated using $W = \tau\theta$, where $\tau$ is the torque and $\theta$ is the angular displacement
• Rotational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy associated with an object's rotational motion
  • Given by $K_r = \frac{1}{2}I\omega^2$, where $I$ is the moment of inertia and $\omega$ is the angular velocity

Angular Momentum

• Angular momentum ($\vec{L}$) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum
  • Defined as the cross product of the position vector ($\vec{r}$) and the linear momentum vector ($\vec{p}$): $\vec{L} = \vec{r} \times \vec{p}$
  • For a point mass: $L = mvr\sin\theta$, where $m$ is the mass, $v$ is the velocity, $r$ is the distance from the axis of rotation, and $\theta$ is the angle between the position vector and the velocity vector
• The net external torque on a system equals the rate of change of its angular momentum: $\sum \tau_{ext} = \frac{d\vec{L}}{dt}$
• Conservation of angular momentum: If the net external torque on a system is zero, its angular momentum is conserved
  • Applies to isolated systems or systems with no net external torque
  • Examples include a figure skater spinning faster as they pull their arms in or a diver somersaulting in the air
• Precession is the gradual change in the orientation of a rotating object's axis of rotation when subjected to an external torque
  • Occurs in gyroscopes and spinning tops
  • The angular velocity of precession is given by $\omega_p = \frac{\tau}{L\sin\theta}$, where $\tau$ is the external torque, $L$ is the angular momentum, and $\theta$ is the angle between the angular momentum vector and the torque vector

Real-World Applications

• Banked curves on roads and racetracks allow vehicles to maintain circular motion without relying solely on friction
  • The angle of the bank provides a component of the normal force that acts as the centripetal force
  • The ideal banking angle depends on the vehicle's speed and the radius of the curve
• Satellites in orbit around Earth experience a centripetal force provided by Earth's gravitational attraction
  • The satellite's velocity is perpendicular to the gravitational force, resulting in a circular or elliptical orbit
  • Geosynchronous satellites have an orbital period equal to Earth's rotational period, allowing them to remain above a fixed point on Earth's surface
• Centrifuges use centripetal force to separate substances of different densities
  • The rapid rotation creates a large centripetal acceleration, causing denser substances to move outward
  • Applications include separating blood components, purifying chemicals, and simulating high-gravity environments for astronaut training
• Flywheels are used to store rotational kinetic energy in machines and vehicles
  • The high moment of inertia allows the flywheel to maintain a steady angular velocity, smoothing out fluctuations in the machine's operation
  • Flywheels can also be used to recover energy during braking and release it during acceleration, improving efficiency in vehicles and machines

Problem-Solving Strategies

• Identify the type of motion (circular or rotational) and the relevant variables (radius, velocity, acceleration, mass, force, torque, moment of inertia, angular displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration)
• Draw a clear diagram of the situation, including the direction of forces, velocities, and accelerations
  • Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of vector quantities like angular velocity, angular momentum, and torque
• Determine the appropriate equations to use based on the given information and the quantity you are asked to find
  • For circular motion, use equations relating centripetal force, centripetal acceleration, velocity, and radius
  • For rotational motion, use equations relating torque, moment of inertia, angular acceleration, angular velocity, and angular displacement
• If the problem involves conservation of angular momentum, identify the initial and final states of the system and equate the initial and final angular momenta
• When dealing with extended objects, break the object into smaller parts or use integration to calculate quantities like moment of inertia or torque
• Double-check your units and ensure that the final answer is reasonable based on the given information and real-world experience