🧮History of Mathematics Unit 2 – Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia: Early Math

Key Civilizations and Time Periods

• Ancient Egypt (c. 3000 BCE - 332 BCE) developed a complex system of mathematics for practical purposes such as surveying land, constructing pyramids, and managing agricultural resources
  • Old Kingdom (c. 2686 BCE - 2181 BCE) saw the construction of the Great Pyramids of Giza
  • Middle Kingdom (c. 2055 BCE - 1650 BCE) witnessed advancements in geometry and algebra
• Mesopotamia (c. 3500 BCE - 539 BCE) encompassed several civilizations including Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria, each contributing to the development of mathematics
  • Sumerian civilization (c. 4500 BCE - 1900 BCE) invented the sexagesimal number system and cuneiform script
  • Babylonian Empire (c. 1894 BCE - 539 BCE) made significant advancements in astronomy and mathematics
• Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BCE - 1300 BCE) developed a standardized system of weights and measures and used mathematical concepts in urban planning and architecture
• Ancient China (c. 1600 BCE - 1046 BCE) during the Shang Dynasty used mathematics for calendar systems, astronomy, and record-keeping
• Ancient Greece (c. 800 BCE - 600 CE) built upon the mathematical knowledge of earlier civilizations and made significant contributions to geometry, number theory, and mathematical reasoning

Mathematical Concepts and Discoveries

• Egyptians developed a decimal numeral system based on powers of 10 and used fractions with a numerator of 1 (unit fractions)
• Mesopotamians used a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system and developed algebraic concepts such as quadratic equations and the Pythagorean theorem
  • Babylonians compiled mathematical tables and solved linear and quadratic equations
• Indus Valley Civilization used a uniform system of weights and measures based on binary and decimal systems
• Ancient Chinese mathematics involved the use of counting rods, the abacus, and the development of mathematical texts such as the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
• Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes made significant contributions to geometry, number theory, and mathematical reasoning
  • Pythagorean theorem states that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides ($a^2 + b^2 = c^2$)
  • Euclid's Elements compiled and systematized geometric knowledge and introduced the axiomatic method
• Egyptians and Mesopotamians used mathematics to solve practical problems such as land surveying, taxation, and construction
  • Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (c. 1650 BCE) contains 84 problems and solutions related to arithmetic, algebra, and geometry

Numeral Systems and Notation

• Egyptian numeral system used hieroglyphs to represent numbers and a decimal system based on powers of 10
  • Hieroglyphs included symbols for 1, 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, 100,000, and 1,000,000
  • Numbers were written using a combination of these symbols (e.g., 365 was written as three 100 signs, six 10 signs, and five 1 signs)
• Mesopotamian numeral system used cuneiform script and a sexagesimal (base 60) system
  • Cuneiform numerals consisted of two symbols: a vertical wedge representing 1 and a horizontal wedge representing 10
  • Positional notation allowed for the representation of large numbers and fractions
• Indus Valley Civilization used a decimal system with symbols for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10
• Ancient Chinese numeral system used counting rods and the abacus for computation
  • Counting rods were arranged in a decimal system with alternating vertical and horizontal placement
• Greek numeral system initially used the Attic system (c. 600 BCE - 300 BCE) before transitioning to the Ionian system (c. 300 BCE - 1453 CE)
  • Attic system used the initial letters of the words for numbers (e.g., Π for 5, Δ for 10, and Η for 100)
  • Ionian system used 24 letters of the Greek alphabet and three obsolete letters to represent numbers

Practical Applications of Math

• Surveying and construction in Ancient Egypt relied on mathematical principles for building pyramids, temples, and other structures
  • Egyptians used a tool called a plumb bob to ensure that edges were straight and corners were square
• Mesopotamian mathematics was used in astronomy, calendar systems, and financial transactions
  • Babylonians developed a sophisticated system of astronomy based on mathematical calculations
• Indus Valley Civilization used mathematics in urban planning, drainage systems, and standardized weights and measures for trade
• Ancient Chinese mathematics was applied to calendar systems, astronomy, and record-keeping
  • Chinese astronomers used mathematics to predict eclipses and track the movements of celestial bodies
• Greek mathematics found applications in architecture, engineering, and astronomy
  • Greek architects used geometric principles to design temples and other structures with harmonious proportions
• Mathematics was used in agricultural management, such as predicting the flooding of the Nile River in Ancient Egypt
• Taxation and resource allocation in ancient civilizations relied on mathematical calculations
  • Mesopotamian clay tablets contain records of taxes, wages, and trade transactions

Mathematical Tools and Artifacts

• Egyptian mathematical tools included the merkhet (plumb bob), the cubit rod, and the setjat (a tool for measuring angles)
  • Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and Moscow Mathematical Papyrus are important sources of Egyptian mathematical knowledge
• Mesopotamian clay tablets contain mathematical texts, tables, and calculations
  • Plimpton 322 tablet (c. 1800 BCE) contains a list of Pythagorean triples and is an early example of number theory
• Indus Valley Civilization artifacts include standardized weights and measures, indicating a well-developed system of mathematics
• Ancient Chinese mathematical tools included counting rods, the abacus, and the suanpan (a type of abacus)
  • Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is a significant Chinese mathematical text compiled during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE)
• Greek mathematical texts and artifacts include Euclid's Elements, Archimedes' Palimpsest, and the Antikythera mechanism (an ancient analog computer)
  • Euclid's Elements consists of 13 books covering geometry, number theory, and mathematical reasoning

Cultural and Religious Influences

• Egyptian mathematics was closely tied to religion and the belief in the afterlife
  • Construction of pyramids and temples was seen as a way to ensure the pharaoh's successful journey to the afterlife
• Mesopotamian mathematics was influenced by the belief in the power of numbers and the gods associated with them
  • Sexagesimal system was linked to the Babylonian gods and their associated numbers
• Indus Valley Civilization's mathematical developments were likely influenced by their complex urban society and trade networks
• Ancient Chinese mathematics was connected to Confucianism, Taoism, and the concept of harmony in nature
  • Yin and yang, the five elements, and the Eight Trigrams of the I Ching influenced Chinese mathematical thought
• Greek mathematics was influenced by philosophical schools such as the Pythagoreans, who believed in the mystical properties of numbers
  • Platonic solids were associated with the classical elements (earth, water, air, fire, and aether)
• Religious texts and myths often incorporated mathematical concepts and symbolism
  • Egyptian Ogdoad creation myth involves the concept of duality and the pairing of primordial deities

Legacy and Impact on Later Mathematics

• Egyptian and Mesopotamian mathematics laid the foundation for later developments in geometry, algebra, and number theory
  • Greek mathematicians built upon the knowledge of these earlier civilizations
• Indus Valley Civilization's standardized weights and measures influenced trade and commerce in the ancient world
• Ancient Chinese mathematical texts, such as the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, had a significant impact on the development of mathematics in East Asia
  • Chinese mathematical knowledge spread to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
• Greek mathematics, particularly Euclid's Elements, had a profound impact on the development of mathematics in the Islamic world and Europe
  • Islamic mathematicians translated and expanded upon Greek mathematical texts
  • European mathematicians rediscovered Greek mathematics during the Renaissance and built upon its foundations
• Decimal numeral system used in Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization influenced the development of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
  • Hindu-Arabic numerals eventually replaced Roman numerals in Europe and became the standard numeral system worldwide

Notable Mathematicians and Scholars

• Imhotep (c. 2650 BCE - 2600 BCE) was an Egyptian polymath who served as chancellor to the pharaoh and is credited with designing the first pyramid
• Ahmes (c. 1680 BCE - 1620 BCE) was an Egyptian scribe who wrote the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which contains 84 mathematical problems and their solutions
• Thales of Miletus (c. 624 BCE - 546 BCE) was a Greek mathematician and philosopher who is credited with introducing geometry to Greece
• Pythagoras of Samos (c. 570 BCE - 495 BCE) was a Greek mathematician and philosopher who founded the Pythagorean school and is known for the Pythagorean theorem
• Euclid of Alexandria (c. 300 BCE) was a Greek mathematician who wrote the Elements, a comprehensive treatise on geometry and number theory
• Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287 BCE - 212 BCE) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, and engineer who made significant contributions to geometry and hydrostatics
  • Archimedes' Palimpsest contains his treatises on the Method of Mechanical Theorems and the concept of infinity
• Zu Chongzhi (429 CE - 501 CE) was a Chinese mathematician and astronomer who calculated the value of pi to seven decimal places and developed a more accurate calendar system
• Brahmagupta (598 CE - 670 CE) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer who introduced the concept of zero as a number and developed rules for arithmetic operations with zero and negative numbers