💰Finance Unit 7 – Stocks and Stock Valuation

What Are Stocks?

• Stocks represent ownership in a company, with each share entitling the holder to a portion of the company's assets and profits
• When a company issues stocks, it is selling partial ownership in the company to raise capital for growth, expansion, or other purposes
• Stockholders have the right to vote on important company decisions, such as electing board members or approving mergers
• As the company's value increases, the value of the stockholder's shares also increases, providing potential for capital appreciation
• Stockholders may also receive a portion of the company's profits in the form of dividends, which are regular payments made to shareholders
• The two main types of stocks are common stock and preferred stock, each with different rights and privileges
• Stocks are considered more volatile and risky compared to other investments like bonds, but they also offer higher potential returns

Types of Stocks

• Common stock is the most prevalent type of stock, representing ownership in a company and entitling shareholders to vote on corporate matters
  • Common stockholders have the potential for capital appreciation as the company grows and becomes more valuable
  • They may also receive dividends, but the payment of dividends is not guaranteed and can fluctuate based on the company's financial performance
• Preferred stock provides a higher claim on a company's assets and earnings compared to common stock
  • Preferred stockholders typically receive fixed dividends, which are paid out before any dividends are issued to common stockholders
  • In the event of a company's liquidation, preferred stockholders have priority over common stockholders in receiving the company's assets
• Blue-chip stocks are shares of well-established, financially stable companies with a history of consistent growth and dividend payments (Coca-Cola, Johnson & Johnson)
• Growth stocks are shares of companies expected to grow at a faster rate than the overall market, often reinvesting profits to accelerate growth (Amazon, Tesla)
• Value stocks are shares of companies that appear to be undervalued by the market based on their fundamentals, such as low price-to-earnings ratios (Berkshire Hathaway, JPMorgan Chase)
• Dividend stocks are shares of companies that consistently pay out a portion of their profits to shareholders in the form of dividends (AT&T, ExxonMobil)

Stock Markets and Exchanges

• Stock markets are platforms where stocks are bought and sold, facilitating the exchange of securities between investors
• The two main types of stock markets are primary markets, where new securities are issued and sold to investors, and secondary markets, where existing securities are traded among investors
• Stock exchanges are organized marketplaces where stockbrokers and traders buy and sell shares of publicly traded companies
• The largest stock exchanges in the world include the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), NASDAQ, Japan Exchange Group, and London Stock Exchange
• Stock exchanges ensure fair and orderly trading, maintain listing requirements for companies, and disseminate market information
• Electronic communication networks (ECNs) are automated trading systems that match buy and sell orders, providing an alternative to traditional stock exchanges
• Over-the-counter (OTC) markets are decentralized markets where stocks not listed on major exchanges are traded directly between buyers and sellers

Factors Affecting Stock Prices

• Economic conditions, such as GDP growth, inflation, and interest rates, can impact stock prices by influencing consumer spending, borrowing costs, and investment decisions
• Company performance, including revenue growth, profitability, and market share, affects investor perception and demand for a company's stock
• Industry trends and competition can impact a company's growth prospects and stock price, as investors assess the company's position within its sector
• Global events, such as natural disasters, political instability, and trade disputes, can create uncertainty and volatility in stock markets
• Market sentiment, which reflects the overall attitude of investors towards the stock market, can drive stock prices up or down based on prevailing optimism or pessimism
• Regulatory changes, such as new laws or tax policies, can affect a company's operations and profitability, leading to changes in its stock price
• Investor speculation and herd mentality can cause short-term fluctuations in stock prices, as investors buy or sell based on market rumors or perceived trends

Stock Valuation Methods

• The price-to-earnings (P/E) ratio compares a company's stock price to its earnings per share (EPS), indicating how much investors are willing to pay for each dollar of earnings
  • The P/E ratio is calculated as: $\text{P/E Ratio} = \frac{\text{Market Price per Share}}{\text{Earnings per Share}}$
  • A higher P/E ratio suggests that investors expect higher growth in the future, while a lower P/E ratio may indicate an undervalued stock or lower growth expectations
• The dividend discount model (DDM) estimates the intrinsic value of a stock based on the present value of its expected future dividend payments
  • The DDM formula is: $\text{Stock Value} = \frac{D_1}{r - g}$
  • Where $D_1$ is the expected dividend per share in the next year, $r$ is the required rate of return, and $g$ is the expected dividend growth rate
• The discounted cash flow (DCF) model determines a stock's intrinsic value by discounting its expected future cash flows to their present value
  • The DCF formula is: $\text{Stock Value} = \sum_{t=1}^{\infty} \frac{CF_t}{(1 + r)^t}$
  • Where $CF_t$ is the cash flow in period $t$, and $r$ is the discount rate (required rate of return)
• The price-to-book (P/B) ratio compares a company's stock price to its book value per share, which represents the value of the company's assets minus its liabilities
  • The P/B ratio is calculated as: $\text{P/B Ratio} = \frac{\text{Market Price per Share}}{\text{Book Value per Share}}$
  • A low P/B ratio may indicate an undervalued stock, while a high P/B ratio suggests that the market values the company's assets more than their book value
• Relative valuation methods, such as the price-to-sales (P/S) ratio and the enterprise value-to-EBITDA ratio, compare a company's valuation to that of its peers or industry benchmarks

Key Financial Ratios for Stock Analysis

• Earnings per share (EPS) measures a company's profitability by dividing its net income by the number of outstanding shares
  • EPS is calculated as: $\text{EPS} = \frac{\text{Net Income}}{\text{Number of Outstanding Shares}}$
  • A higher EPS indicates greater profitability and potential for stock price appreciation
• The debt-to-equity (D/E) ratio assesses a company's financial leverage by comparing its total liabilities to its shareholders' equity
  • The D/E ratio is calculated as: $\text{D/E Ratio} = \frac{\text{Total Liabilities}}{\text{Shareholders' Equity}}$
  • A high D/E ratio suggests that a company is heavily reliant on debt financing, which can be risky, while a low D/E ratio indicates a more conservative capital structure
• The return on equity (ROE) measures a company's profitability in relation to the equity invested by shareholders
  • ROE is calculated as: $\text{ROE} = \frac{\text{Net Income}}{\text{Shareholders' Equity}}$
  • A higher ROE indicates that a company is more effective at generating profits from the money invested by shareholders
• The current ratio evaluates a company's ability to pay off its short-term obligations using its current assets
  • The current ratio is calculated as: $\text{Current Ratio} = \frac{\text{Current Assets}}{\text{Current Liabilities}}$
  • A current ratio above 1 suggests that a company has sufficient current assets to cover its short-term liabilities, while a ratio below 1 may indicate potential liquidity issues
• The price-to-sales (P/S) ratio compares a company's stock price to its revenue per share, providing insight into how the market values the company's sales
  • The P/S ratio is calculated as: $\text{P/S Ratio} = \frac{\text{Market Price per Share}}{\text{Revenue per Share}}$
  • A low P/S ratio may indicate an undervalued stock, while a high P/S ratio suggests that the market expects significant growth in sales

Trading Strategies

• Buy and hold is a long-term strategy where investors purchase stocks and hold them for an extended period, regardless of short-term market fluctuations
  • This strategy is based on the belief that the stock market will appreciate over time, and that trying to time the market is difficult and often counterproductive
  • Investors using this strategy typically have a long investment horizon and are not concerned with short-term price movements
• Value investing involves identifying and investing in stocks that appear to be undervalued by the market based on fundamental analysis
  • Value investors look for stocks with low price-to-earnings (P/E) ratios, low price-to-book (P/B) ratios, and high dividend yields
  • The goal is to buy these undervalued stocks and hold them until the market recognizes their intrinsic value, leading to price appreciation
• Growth investing focuses on companies with strong earnings growth potential, often in emerging industries or markets
  • Growth investors prioritize companies with high revenue and earnings growth rates, even if they have higher valuations compared to the overall market
  • These investors are willing to pay a premium for stocks that they believe have significant growth prospects
• Momentum investing involves buying stocks that have recently outperformed the market and selling those that have underperformed
  • Momentum investors believe that stocks that have performed well in the recent past will continue to do so in the near future, and vice versa
  • This strategy often involves shorter holding periods and more frequent trading compared to buy and hold or value investing strategies
• Contrarian investing involves going against prevailing market sentiment and investing in stocks or sectors that are currently out of favor
  • Contrarian investors believe that the market often overreacts to negative news, creating opportunities to buy undervalued stocks
  • This strategy requires a strong conviction in one's analysis and the ability to withstand short-term market pressure
• Dollar-cost averaging is a strategy where investors allocate a fixed amount of money to buy a specific stock or fund at regular intervals, regardless of the price
  • This approach helps to mitigate the impact of market volatility by ensuring that investors buy more shares when prices are low and fewer shares when prices are high
  • Dollar-cost averaging can be an effective way to build a position in a stock over time, reducing the risk of buying at a single, potentially unfavorable price point

Risks and Rewards of Stock Investing

• Capital appreciation is one of the primary rewards of stock investing, as investors can benefit from an increase in the value of their shares over time
  • As a company grows and becomes more profitable, its stock price typically rises, providing investors with the opportunity to sell their shares at a higher price than they paid
  • Successful stock investments can generate significant returns, outpacing inflation and other asset classes
• Dividend income is another potential reward of stock investing, as some companies distribute a portion of their profits to shareholders in the form of regular dividend payments
  • Dividend-paying stocks can provide investors with a steady stream of income, which can be reinvested to purchase additional shares or used to supplement other income sources
  • Dividends can also help to mitigate the impact of market volatility, as they provide a tangible return even when stock prices are fluctuating
• Liquidity is an important advantage of stock investing, as shares of publicly traded companies can be easily bought and sold on stock exchanges
  • This liquidity allows investors to quickly convert their stock holdings into cash when needed, providing flexibility in managing their portfolios
  • The high liquidity of stocks also facilitates portfolio diversification, as investors can easily allocate their funds across multiple companies and sectors
• Market volatility is a significant risk in stock investing, as stock prices can fluctuate widely based on a variety of factors, such as economic conditions, company performance, and investor sentiment
  • Short-term price movements can be unpredictable and may not reflect a company's underlying fundamentals, leading to potential losses for investors
  • Volatility can be particularly challenging for investors with shorter investment horizons or those who are risk-averse
• Company-specific risk is another potential drawback of stock investing, as the performance of an individual stock is closely tied to the success or failure of the underlying company
  • Factors such as poor management decisions, competitive pressures, or product failures can negatively impact a company's financial performance and stock price
  • Investors who concentrate their portfolios in a small number of stocks are particularly exposed to company-specific risk
• Economic and market risks can also affect stock investments, as factors such as recessions, inflation, interest rate changes, and geopolitical events can impact the overall performance of the stock market
  • During economic downturns, stock prices often decline as investors become more risk-averse and companies face reduced demand for their products or services
  • Changes in interest rates can also affect stock valuations, as higher rates can make fixed-income investments more attractive and increase borrowing costs for companies