🥸Ethics Unit 1 – Introduction to Ethics and Moral Philosophy

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Ethics involves the systematic study of moral principles, values, and norms that guide human behavior and decision-making
• Morality refers to the set of beliefs, practices, and codes of conduct that individuals and societies use to distinguish right from wrong
• Deontology emphasizes the intrinsic rightness or wrongness of actions based on adherence to moral rules or duties (Kantian ethics)
• Consequentialism judges the morality of an action based on its outcomes or consequences (utilitarianism)
  • Utilitarianism seeks to maximize overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people
• Virtue ethics focuses on the moral character of the agent and the cultivation of virtues such as courage, justice, and temperance
• Moral relativism holds that moral judgments are relative to individual or cultural beliefs and practices, while moral absolutism asserts the existence of universal moral truths
• Ethical dilemmas arise when moral principles or values come into conflict, requiring individuals to make difficult choices between competing obligations or outcomes

Historical Context of Ethics

• Ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the foundations for Western ethical thought, emphasizing the pursuit of virtue, justice, and the good life
• Medieval Christian thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas synthesized Aristotelian ethics with biblical teachings, developing the concept of natural law and the cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance)
• The Enlightenment saw the rise of rational and secular approaches to ethics, exemplified by Immanuel Kant's deontological theory based on the categorical imperative and the principle of human dignity
• Utilitarian thinkers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill developed the consequentialist approach, which evaluates actions based on their overall utility or happiness for all affected parties
• 20th-century philosophers such as John Rawls and Robert Nozick explored questions of social justice, equality, and individual rights within the framework of political philosophy and ethics
  • Rawls' theory of justice as fairness proposed a hypothetical social contract in which principles of justice are chosen behind a "veil of ignorance" to ensure impartiality
• Feminist and non-Western perspectives have challenged traditional Western ethical frameworks, highlighting issues of gender, race, and cultural diversity in moral reasoning

Major Ethical Theories

• Kantian deontology holds that the morality of an action depends on its adherence to moral rules or duties, such as the categorical imperative to treat humanity as an end in itself and never merely as a means
• Utilitarianism, a form of consequentialism, seeks to maximize overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people, often through a cost-benefit analysis of actions and policies
• Virtue ethics, inspired by Aristotle, focuses on the moral character of the agent and the cultivation of virtues such as courage, justice, and temperance through habit and practice
• Care ethics, developed by feminist philosophers such as Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, emphasizes the importance of empathy, compassion, and attentiveness to the needs of others in moral decision-making
• Egoism holds that moral agents should prioritize their own self-interest, while altruism emphasizes the importance of selflessness and concern for others
• Social contract theory, associated with philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, sees morality as derived from a hypothetical agreement among individuals to establish rules for peaceful coexistence and mutual benefit

Moral Reasoning and Decision-Making

• Moral reasoning involves the application of ethical principles and theories to specific situations or dilemmas to determine the right course of action
• The process of moral decision-making often requires weighing competing values, duties, and consequences to arrive at a justifiable conclusion
• Moral intuitions and emotions play a significant role in shaping our moral judgments, but they should be subject to critical reflection and rational scrutiny
• The doctrine of double effect distinguishes between the intended and unintended consequences of an action, holding that an action with both good and bad effects may be morally permissible if the bad effect is not intended and is proportionate to the good achieved
• Moral heuristics, such as the "do no harm" principle or the Golden Rule, provide general guidelines for moral behavior but may require further specification and balancing in complex situations
• Moral consistency and impartiality are important principles in moral reasoning, requiring individuals to apply moral standards equally to all relevant parties and to avoid arbitrary discrimination
• The role of conscience and personal integrity in moral decision-making highlights the importance of acting in accordance with one's deeply held moral convictions, even in the face of social pressure or adverse consequences

Applied Ethics in Contemporary Issues

• Bioethics addresses moral questions arising from advances in medicine and biotechnology, such as end-of-life care, genetic engineering, and human enhancement
  • The principle of patient autonomy underlies the requirement for informed consent in medical decision-making
  • The allocation of scarce medical resources raises questions of distributive justice and the prioritization of competing needs
• Environmental ethics examines the moral status of non-human animals, ecosystems, and future generations, and the responsibilities of humans toward the natural world
  • The concept of sustainability emphasizes the importance of balancing economic development with the preservation of natural resources and the well-being of future generations
• Business ethics explores the moral dimensions of corporate practices, such as corporate social responsibility, stakeholder theory, and ethical investing
• The ethics of war and peace addresses issues such as the just war theory, the moral status of combatants and non-combatants, and the permissibility of humanitarian intervention
• The ethics of technology examines the social and moral implications of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, surveillance, and digital privacy
• Animal ethics considers the moral status of non-human animals and the obligations of humans toward them, such as the debate over animal rights and the ethics of animal experimentation

Critiques and Debates in Ethical Philosophy

• The is-ought problem, raised by David Hume, questions the validity of deriving moral prescriptions (what ought to be) from purely descriptive premises (what is)
• The fact-value distinction highlights the difference between empirical facts and moral values, and the difficulty of grounding moral claims in purely factual or scientific terms
• Moral skepticism challenges the possibility of objective moral knowledge or the existence of moral facts, arguing that moral judgments are ultimately subjective or culturally relative
• The naturalistic fallacy, identified by G.E. Moore, warns against defining moral terms (such as "good") in purely naturalistic or non-moral terms, as this would fail to capture their inherently normative character
• Debates between moral realists and anti-realists center on the ontological status of moral facts and properties, with realists affirming their mind-independent existence and anti-realists denying it
• The problem of moral motivation examines the relationship between moral judgment and moral action, and the psychological and practical factors that influence moral behavior
• Critiques of traditional ethical theories, such as the charge of oversimplification or neglect of contextual factors, have led to the development of alternative approaches such as moral particularism and situational ethics

Case Studies and Thought Experiments

• The trolley problem, a classic thought experiment in ethics, presents a dilemma between actively causing one death to save multiple lives or allowing multiple deaths through inaction
  • Variations of the trolley problem, such as the fat man scenario, test the moral significance of the distinction between action and inaction, and the doctrine of double effect
• The experience machine, proposed by Robert Nozick, challenges hedonistic theories of well-being by asking whether a life of pure pleasure without genuine accomplishment or connection to reality would be desirable
• The ship of Theseus paradox raises questions about personal identity and the persistence of objects over time, with implications for theories of moral responsibility and punishment
• The violinist analogy, used by Judith Jarvis Thomson in the context of the abortion debate, compares the right to bodily autonomy with the duty to provide aid to a dependent person
• The prisoner's dilemma, a game-theoretic scenario, illustrates the tension between individual and collective rationality, and the importance of cooperation and trust in social interactions
• The lifeboat dilemma presents a situation of limited resources and the need to prioritize competing claims to survival, testing principles of fairness and utility
• The Heinz dilemma, used by Lawrence Kohlberg in his theory of moral development, probes the conflict between the duty to obey the law and the imperative to save a life, and the role of moral reasoning in justifying a course of action

Further Reading and Resources

• Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" provides a classic exposition of virtue ethics and the concept of eudaimonia (flourishing) as the highest good
• Immanuel Kant's "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals" presents his deontological theory based on the categorical imperative and the principle of human dignity
• John Stuart Mill's "Utilitarianism" offers a defense of the consequentialist approach and the greatest happiness principle as the foundation of morality
• John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice" develops a social contract theory of justice based on the principles of equal liberty and the difference principle, which permits inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged
• Peter Singer's "Practical Ethics" applies utilitarian principles to contemporary moral issues such as animal rights, global poverty, and environmental ethics
• Martha Nussbaum's "The Fragility of Goodness" explores the role of luck and vulnerability in ancient Greek ethics and tragedy, and their relevance to modern moral philosophy
• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/) provides comprehensive and authoritative entries on key topics and figures in moral philosophy
• The BBC's "Ethics Guide" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/guide/) offers accessible introductions to major ethical theories and their application to practical issues