deviance and social control unit 2 study guides

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Deviance refers to behaviors, beliefs, or characteristics that violate social norms and expectations within a particular society or group
• Social norms are the unwritten rules, values, and expectations that guide behavior within a society and vary across cultures and time periods
• Conformity involves adhering to social norms and expectations, while nonconformity involves deviating from them
• Formal deviance includes violations of laws and official rules (criminal behavior), while informal deviance includes violations of unwritten social norms (rudeness)
• Primary deviance is the initial act of rule-breaking, while secondary deviance occurs when the individual internalizes the deviant label and continues the behavior
• Stigma is a mark of disgrace or disapproval that sets an individual apart from others due to their deviant behavior or characteristics
• Social control refers to the methods used by society to encourage conformity and discourage deviance, including formal sanctions (laws) and informal sanctions (disapproval)

Theoretical Frameworks

• Functionalist perspective views deviance as necessary for maintaining social order and reinforcing norms, as it helps define boundaries and promotes social cohesion
  • Durkheim argued that deviance is a normal and necessary part of society, serving positive functions such as promoting social change and innovation
• Conflict theory sees deviance as a result of power inequalities and the struggle between dominant and subordinate groups, with laws and norms reflecting the interests of the powerful
  • Marxist theories emphasize the role of economic inequality and class conflict in shaping definitions of deviance and social control
• Symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on how deviance is socially constructed through interactions and labeling processes, rather than being an inherent quality of the behavior itself
  • Labeling theory, developed by Becker, examines how being labeled as deviant can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and further deviant behavior
• Strain theories, such as Merton's anomie theory, argue that deviance results from the strain between socially prescribed goals and the means available to achieve them
• Control theories, such as Hirschi's social bonding theory, emphasize the role of social bonds and attachments in preventing deviance and promoting conformity

Types of Deviance

• Criminal deviance involves violations of laws, such as theft, assault, and drug trafficking, and is subject to formal sanctions by the criminal justice system
• Sexual deviance includes behaviors that violate norms related to sexuality, such as promiscuity, homosexuality (in some contexts), and paraphilias
• Religious deviance involves deviating from the beliefs and practices of a dominant religious group, such as heresy, apostasy, or cult membership
• Political deviance includes acts of dissent, protest, or rebellion against the government or dominant political order, such as civil disobedience or terrorism
• Mental illness can be considered a form of deviance when behaviors associated with psychological disorders violate social norms and expectations
• Positive deviance refers to behaviors that exceed social norms in a beneficial way, such as exceptional altruism, innovation, or heroism
• Cyber deviance includes deviant behaviors that occur online, such as cyberbullying, hacking, or spreading misinformation

Social Norms and Their Influence

• Prescriptive norms specify behaviors that are expected or required in a given situation, such as dressing appropriately for work or expressing gratitude
• Proscriptive norms specify behaviors that are prohibited or discouraged, such as lying, cheating, or engaging in violence
• Folkways are informal norms that guide everyday behavior and interactions, such as table manners or personal hygiene, and violations are met with mild disapproval
• Mores are strongly held norms that reflect a society's values and moral standards, such as prohibitions against murder or incest, and violations evoke strong condemnation
• Taboos are highly stigmatized and forbidden behaviors that evoke disgust or revulsion, such as cannibalism or incest
• Norms are enforced through various forms of social control, including socialization, peer pressure, and formal sanctions
  • Socialization is the process by which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, and expectations of their society, beginning in childhood
  • Peer pressure involves the influence of one's social group to conform to norms and avoid deviance, often through the threat of ostracism or disapproval

Labeling and Stigmatization

• Labeling theory emphasizes the role of social reactions in defining certain behaviors or individuals as deviant and the consequences of being labeled
• Primary deviance is the initial act of rule-breaking, while secondary deviance occurs when the individual internalizes the deviant label and continues the behavior
  • Secondary deviance can lead to a deviant career, where the individual's identity and behavior become organized around the deviant label
• Stigma is a discrediting attribute that reduces an individual from a whole person to a tainted or discounted one, often based on deviant behavior or characteristics
  • Goffman distinguished between discredited stigma, which is immediately apparent (physical disability), and discreditable stigma, which can be concealed (criminal record)
• Stigmatization can lead to social exclusion, discrimination, and limited opportunities for the stigmatized individual, as well as psychological distress and internalized shame
• Deviant subcultures may emerge among stigmatized individuals who share a common deviant identity and provide support and solidarity in the face of societal rejection
• Techniques of neutralization, identified by Sykes and Matza, are rationalizations used by individuals to justify their deviant behavior and maintain a positive self-image

Societal Reactions to Deviance

• Formal social control involves the use of official sanctions, such as laws and punishments, to enforce norms and deter deviance
  • The criminal justice system, including police, courts, and prisons, is a primary agent of formal social control in modern societies
• Informal social control involves the use of unofficial sanctions, such as disapproval, gossip, or ostracism, to encourage conformity and discourage deviance
  • Informal sanctions are often more effective than formal sanctions in regulating behavior, as they are more immediate and pervasive in everyday interactions
• Moral panics occur when a perceived threat to social order, often involving deviant behavior, generates widespread public concern and exaggerated reactions
  • Cohen studied moral panics surrounding youth subcultures in post-war Britain, such as the mods and rockers, and how media amplification contributed to societal overreaction
• Medicalization refers to the process by which deviant behaviors or conditions come to be defined and treated as medical issues rather than moral failings
  • The medicalization of addiction, mental illness, and homosexuality has shifted societal responses from punishment to treatment and support
• Restorative justice is an alternative approach to responding to deviance that emphasizes repairing harm, promoting accountability, and reintegrating offenders into the community
  • Restorative practices, such as victim-offender mediation and community conferences, involve dialogue and negotiation rather than adversarial punishment

Case Studies and Examples

• The war on drugs in the United States has been criticized as a form of social control that disproportionately targets minority communities and exacerbates social inequalities
  • Crack cocaine, associated with inner-city Black communities, has been punished more harshly than powder cocaine, associated with affluent white users
• The medicalization of ADHD has led to increased diagnosis and treatment of children's behavior as a medical condition, raising concerns about overmedication and social control
  • Conrad and Schneider examined the medicalization of deviance, including hyperactivity, arguing that it reflects the expansion of medical authority over social problems
• The deinstitutionalization of mental illness in the mid-20th century, while intended to promote community-based care, has contributed to the criminalization of mental illness and the rise of homelessness
• The #MeToo movement has challenged societal norms and reactions surrounding sexual harassment and assault, encouraging victims to speak out and holding perpetrators accountable
  • The movement has also sparked debates about due process, false accusations, and the limits of social media activism in addressing sexual deviance
• The legalization of marijuana in some U.S. states and countries represents a shift in societal attitudes and reactions to drug use, from criminalization to regulation and harm reduction
  • The legal cannabis industry has raised questions about social equity, corporate influence, and the ongoing stigmatization of users in other contexts

Critical Analysis and Debates

• Labeling theory has been criticized for overemphasizing the role of social reactions in causing deviance and neglecting the influence of individual choice and responsibility
  • Modified labeling theory, developed by Link and colleagues, acknowledges the interplay between social labeling and the individual's response in shaping deviant outcomes
• The medicalization of deviance has been debated as both a progressive response to social problems and a form of social control that expands the power of medical authorities
  • Critics argue that medicalization can depoliticize social issues, individualize responsibility, and create new forms of stigma and inequality
• The concept of deviance itself has been critiqued as a social construct that reflects power relations and dominant norms rather than objective reality
  • Critical criminologists, such as Taylor, Walton, and Young, have argued that definitions of crime and deviance serve the interests of the ruling class and maintain social inequalities
• Intersectionality theory, developed by Crenshaw, examines how multiple marginalized identities (race, class, gender) intersect to shape experiences of deviance and social control
  • Intersectional approaches challenge one-dimensional analyses of deviance and highlight the compounding effects of social inequalities on marginalized groups
• The role of media in shaping perceptions and reactions to deviance has been a focus of critical analysis, from Cohen's study of moral panics to the influence of social media on contemporary social movements
  • Media representations of deviance can reinforce stereotypes, fuel public anxieties, and contribute to the social construction of social problems and responses