bio 20300 anatomy and physiology unit 1 study guides

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Anatomy studies the structure of the human body, while physiology focuses on the functions and processes of living organisms
• Homeostasis maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment through various regulatory mechanisms
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life, forming tissues, organs, and systems
• Negative feedback loops help maintain homeostasis by counteracting changes in the body's internal environment
• Positive feedback loops amplify changes in the body, such as during blood clotting or childbirth
• Anatomical terminology includes directional terms (superior, inferior, anterior, posterior) and body planes (sagittal, coronal, transverse)
• Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in the body, including anabolism (building molecules) and catabolism (breaking down molecules)

Anatomical Structure Overview

• The human body is organized into various levels of complexity, from cells to tissues, organs, and systems
• The skeletal system provides structure, support, and protection for the body, and consists of bones, cartilage, and ligaments
• The muscular system enables movement, maintains posture, and generates heat, and includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissues
• The nervous system coordinates and controls body functions, and is divided into the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (nerves) nervous systems
• The cardiovascular system transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout the body via the heart, blood vessels, and blood
• The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the air and blood, and includes the lungs, trachea, and diaphragm
• The digestive system breaks down food into absorbable nutrients, and consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gallbladder)
• The urinary system filters blood, removes waste, and regulates fluid and electrolyte balance, and includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra

Physiological Systems and Functions

• The endocrine system regulates body processes through the secretion of hormones by glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas)
• The immune system defends the body against pathogens and foreign substances, and includes white blood cells, lymph nodes, and the spleen
• The lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream, absorbs fats, and supports immune function, and consists of lymph vessels, nodes, and ducts
• The reproductive system enables the production of offspring, and includes the gonads (testes, ovaries), genitalia, and accessory glands
  • Male reproductive system produces sperm and testosterone, and includes the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, and penis
  • Female reproductive system produces eggs and estrogen, and includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina
• The integumentary system protects the body, regulates temperature, and synthesizes vitamin D, and consists of the skin, hair, and nails
• The sensory systems (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch) allow the body to perceive and respond to the environment

Cell and Tissue Organization

• Cells are composed of organelles, each with specific functions (nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus)
• Cell membrane is a selectively permeable barrier that controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell
• Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function, and include epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues
• Epithelial tissue covers and lines body surfaces, and is classified by cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and layers (simple, stratified)
• Connective tissue supports and connects other tissues, and includes loose (adipose), dense (tendons, ligaments), and specialized (cartilage, bone, blood) types
• Muscular tissue enables movement and includes skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (heart) types
• Nervous tissue transmits electrical signals and includes neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia (supporting cells)

Organ Systems and Their Interactions

• Organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis and support life processes
• The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate and regulate the functions of other systems through electrical signals and hormones, respectively
  • Example: The hypothalamus (nervous system) controls the pituitary gland (endocrine system), which regulates other endocrine glands
• The cardiovascular and respiratory systems work together to deliver oxygen to cells and remove carbon dioxide
  • Example: Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs is pumped by the heart to the body's tissues, while carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs for exhalation
• The digestive and urinary systems collaborate to process nutrients and eliminate waste products
  • Example: The liver (digestive system) detoxifies substances and produces bile, while the kidneys (urinary system) filter blood and regulate fluid balance
• The skeletal and muscular systems interact to enable movement and support the body
  • Example: Skeletal muscles attach to bones via tendons, allowing for joint movement and stability
• The immune and lymphatic systems cooperate to defend the body against pathogens and maintain fluid balance

Homeostasis and Regulatory Mechanisms

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment
• Negative feedback loops help maintain homeostasis by counteracting changes in the body's internal environment
  • Example: When body temperature rises, sweat production increases to cool the body back to its set point
• Positive feedback loops amplify changes in the body, but are less common and typically limited in duration
  • Example: During childbirth, oxytocin release stimulates uterine contractions, which further stimulate oxytocin release until delivery occurs
• Thermoregulation maintains a constant body temperature through mechanisms like sweating, shivering, and vasoconstriction/vasodilation
• Osmoregulation controls the balance of water and electrolytes in the body, primarily through the actions of the kidneys and hormones like antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Blood glucose regulation involves the pancreas secreting insulin (lowers blood sugar) and glucagon (raises blood sugar) to maintain normal levels
• Acid-base balance is maintained by the respiratory system (adjusting CO2 levels) and the urinary system (excreting or retaining hydrogen ions)

Common Disorders and Pathologies

• Cardiovascular disorders include hypertension (high blood pressure), atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in arteries), and myocardial infarction (heart attack)
• Respiratory disorders include asthma (chronic airway inflammation), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pneumonia (lung infection)
• Endocrine disorders include diabetes mellitus (impaired insulin function), hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid), and Cushing's syndrome (excess cortisol)
• Neurological disorders include Alzheimer's disease (progressive memory loss), Parkinson's disease (impaired movement), and multiple sclerosis (autoimmune damage to nerve cells)
• Musculoskeletal disorders include osteoporosis (decreased bone density), rheumatoid arthritis (autoimmune joint inflammation), and muscular dystrophy (progressive muscle weakness)
• Digestive disorders include gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and cirrhosis (liver scarring)
• Urinary disorders include kidney stones, urinary tract infections (UTIs), and renal failure (impaired kidney function)

Clinical Applications and Relevance

• Understanding anatomy and physiology is essential for diagnosing and treating diseases, as well as for developing new therapies and medications
• Medical imaging techniques, such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs, allow healthcare professionals to visualize the body's internal structures and detect abnormalities
• Pharmacology relies on understanding how drugs interact with the body's systems to produce therapeutic effects and minimize adverse reactions
• Surgical procedures require a thorough knowledge of anatomical structures and their relationships to ensure safe and effective interventions
• Physical therapy and rehabilitation utilize principles of anatomy and physiology to help patients recover from injuries or adapt to chronic conditions
• Genetic testing and personalized medicine rely on understanding the molecular basis of diseases and how individual variations influence health outcomes
• Public health initiatives, such as vaccination programs and lifestyle interventions, are informed by knowledge of how the body's systems function and interact with the environment