9.4 Migration and Immigration in the 1990s and 2000s

The 1990s and 2000s saw a massive surge in immigration to the U.S., with Latin America and Asia being the main sources. This influx was driven by economic opportunities, family reunification policies, and global factors like political instability and globalization.

This wave of immigration significantly impacted American society, contributing to cultural diversity and economic growth. However, it also sparked debates on language policies, national identity, and immigration reform, shaping the political landscape of the era.

Migration and Immigration to the United States in the 1990s and 2000s

Surge in Immigration and Primary Sources

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• The 1990s saw a surge in immigration, with the foreign-born population increasing from 19.8 million in 1990 to 31.1 million in 2000, the largest numerical increase in U.S. history
• The primary sources of immigration during this period were:
  1. Latin America (51%)
  2. Asia (27%)
  3. Europe (16%)
• Mexico was the single largest country of origin for immigrants during this time

Visa Programs and Refugee Admissions

• The H-1B visa program, established in 1990, allowed for a significant increase in skilled workers, particularly in the technology sector
• The Diversity Visa Program, also known as the Green Card Lottery, was introduced in the 1990s to encourage immigration from underrepresented countries
• Refugees from various countries were admitted to the U.S. during this period due to political instability and conflict in their home countries (Bosnia, Somalia, Iraq)

Factors Driving Migration and Immigration

Economic and Family-Related Factors

• Economic factors attracted skilled and unskilled workers to the U.S.:
  • Labor demand in industries like technology, healthcare, and service sectors
• Family reunification policies enabled immigrants to sponsor family members, leading to chain migration
• The prospect of better education and job opportunities attracted many immigrants to the U.S.

Political and Global Factors

• Political instability, civil wars, and human rights abuses in various countries drove refugees and asylum seekers to the U.S.
• Globalization and advancements in transportation and communication made international migration more accessible

Impact of Immigration on American Society

Cultural and Economic Contributions

• The growing diversity of immigrants led to increased cultural pluralism and the celebration of multiculturalism in the U.S.
• Immigrants contributed to the economy as workers, entrepreneurs, and consumers, particularly in urban areas
• Immigrant communities revitalized many urban neighborhoods and contributed to the growth of ethnic enclaves
• The incorporation of immigrant traditions, customs, and cuisines enriched American culture and identity (food, music, art)

Debates and Challenges

• The presence of immigrants led to debates about language policy:
  • Some advocated for English-only policies
  • Others supported bilingual education and services
• The increasing diversity of the population challenged traditional notions of American identity and led to debates about assimilation and integration

Effectiveness of U.S. Immigration Policies

Major Legislation and Their Consequences

• The Immigration Act of 1990 increased legal immigration limits, prioritized family reunification, and introduced the Diversity Visa Program, leading to a more diverse immigrant population
• The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) of 1996:
  • Increased border enforcement and penalties for illegal immigration
  • Made it more difficult for immigrants to access public benefits
• Welfare reform legislation in 1996 restricted immigrants' access to public assistance programs, leading to increased economic hardship for some immigrant families

Post-9/11 Era and Unresolved Debates

• The post-9/11 era saw increased scrutiny of immigrants, particularly those from Muslim-majority countries, leading to heightened security measures and discrimination
• State and local governments adopted varying policies toward immigrants, ranging from "sanctuary" policies to strict enforcement measures, creating a patchwork of immigration policies across the country
• Debates over comprehensive immigration reform remained unresolved during this period:
  • Pathways to citizenship for undocumented immigrants
  • Border security
  • The role of immigration in the labor market