American imperialism in the late 19th century was driven by economic, cultural, and ideological factors. The desire for new markets, raw materials, and global influence pushed the U.S. to expand its reach beyond its borders.
This expansion sparked heated debates between supporters and critics. Imperialists saw it as America's destiny to spread its values, while opponents argued it violated founding principles. These debates shaped U.S. foreign policy for decades to come.
Motivations for American Imperialism
Economic Motivations
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- Desire for new markets and raw materials fueled America's growing industrial economy
- Business leaders sought access to resources (rubber, oil, minerals)
- Belief in the concept of "social Darwinism" argued competition between nations and races was natural and beneficial
- Used to justify American expansion as a way to prove its superiority
- Political and military leaders promoted imperialism to establish naval bases and refueling stations around the world
- Aimed to project American power and protect its interests abroad
Cultural and Ideological Motivations
- Racism and cultural chauvinism pervasive in the imperialist mindset
- Many Americans believed in the superiority of white Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture
- Saw it as their duty to "uplift" or "civilize" foreign peoples
- Spanish-American War in 1898 launched America as an imperial power
- Driven by nationalistic fervor and sensationalized journalism that stirred public support for war
- President Theodore Roosevelt's "big stick" foreign policy and his corollary to the Monroe Doctrine asserted America's right to intervene in Latin American countries
- Reflected a sense of hemispheric hegemony
Debates on Imperialism
Arguments for Imperialism
- Supporters argued it was America's "manifest destiny" to expand its territory and influence
- Saw it as a natural extension of the nation's growth and power
- Imperialists justified expansionism as a way to spread Christianity and American values to "backward" nations
- Reflected a sense of cultural and moral superiority
- The idea of the "white man's burden," inspired by Rudyard Kipling's poem, framed imperialism as a noble, paternalistic mission
- Aimed to uplift and civilize non-white peoples, despite the inherent racism and condescension in this view
Arguments against Imperialism
- Critics, like the Anti-Imperialist League, argued it violated America's founding ideals of self-determination and republicanism
- Believed it subjugated foreign peoples
- Some labor leaders and progressives opposed imperialism, arguing it primarily benefited big business and wealthy elites
- Saw it as coming at the expense of workers and everyday Americans
- The annexation of the Philippines sparked particularly intense debate
- Anti-imperialists argued the U.S. should not become a colonial power and deny Filipinos their independence
- The Philippine-American War from 1899-1902 raised questions about American military conduct and treatment of Filipino fighters and civilians
Impact of Imperialist Policies
Territorial Expansion and Intervention
- The Spanish-American War resulted in the U.S. acquiring new territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines)
- These became American colonies or protectorates
- The construction of the Panama Canal, completed in 1914, dramatically enhanced American naval power and commercial interests
- Involved U.S. intervention in Colombian affairs to support Panama's independence
- The U.S. frequently intervened militarily in Latin American countries (Nicaragua, Honduras, Dominican Republic)
- Aimed to protect American business interests, prop up friendly governments, and maintain stability through "dollar diplomacy"
Foreign Relations and Global Context
- American imperialist actions often bred resentment and resistance in foreign nations
- Led to conflicts like the Philippine-American War and the Boxer Rebellion in China
- The Open Door policy toward China, first articulated in 1899, aimed to protect American commercial interests
- Sought to prevent European powers from dividing China into exclusive spheres of influence
- The growing American presence in the Pacific, particularly after the annexation of Hawaii, brought the U.S. into competition with rising Asian powers (Japan)
- Set the stage for future conflicts
- Imperialist policies marked a significant shift in American foreign relations
- Moved away from isolationism and toward an increasingly active role in world affairs
- Had major consequences in the 20th century